The Greek city state of Zacynthus, also known as Saguntum, sat halfway between the Carthaginian capital of Spain, Nova Cartago (New Carthage), and the Ebro River, south of the Pyrenees Mountains. The Peace treaty of 226BC between Rome and Carthage defined the two empires' spheres of influence. Carthage would control the area south of the Ebro River, while Rome controlled the rest. Considering the post-First Punic War efforts of Rome in placing Sardinia in their control, Carthage was likely playing for time as she conquered and pacified Spain.

In any case, Saguntum was closely tied commercially to another city state, Massilia (present-day Marseilles in France), which in turn, was a formal ally to Rome. In 219BC, Rome inserted her presence into Saguntum by arbitrating a political split in the city, such that a political party favorable to Rome came to power. Hannibal, essentially the commander in chief of Carthaginian forces in Spain since 221 BC, realized a Roman presence in Saguntum was as good as a bridgehead. Since the city was well south of the Ebro, and thus within the Carthaginian sphere from the treaty of 226BC, Hannibal laid siege to it. Roman envoys warned Hannibal that Saguntum fell under Rome's protection, pointing to the passage of the treaty that noted "excepting the allies of both parties." They were dismissed. They then traveled to Carthage, but, again, were dismissed.

Saguntum fell after an eight-month siege. The Romans debated what to do and in the end, effected a compromise. They sent a deputation under Fabius {not the Fabius Maximus but a gensmate M. Fabius Buteo- sfp.} to Carthage to ask whether Hannibal was operating on his own or under Carthaginian orders. If by himself, Carthage must hand Hannibal over to the Romans. This the Carthaginian senators would not do, and referred back to the treaty of 226BC, contending that Saguntum had not been an ally of Rome at the time of the treaty. Fabius countered that the treaty included the current and future allies. The Carthaginian senate said the treaty did not include future allies, resulting in an impasse.

When asked what Roman intentions were now, Fabius, in a melodramatic moment recounted by Livius, grasped the folds of his toga to his breast, and said, "Here, we bring you peace and war. Take what you will." The senators of Carthage responded, "Whichever you please, we do not care."

Fabius let the folds of his toga drop to the floor and cried, "We give you war!" The Carthaginian senate replied, "We accept it! And in the same spirit, we will fight it to the end!" [Livius XXI, 18] So officially began the Second Punic War. There was no doubt that Hannibal's plan was to take the war to the Romans, and not fight on Carthaginian or their allies soil. There was no doubt in either of the Roman historians mind that Hannibal planned to take the war to Italy instead of fighting a defensive campaign in Spain. He spent the intervening months transferring Spanish troops to Africa and African troops to Spain in order to ensure loyalty while he was away on his great march

To halt the danger of a Roman invasion of Africa by way of the Balearics while he was marching to Italy through Spain and the Gallic provinces, he took the precaution of stationing a powerful force on the island. This meant he needed additional reenforcements, and he requested a fresh contingent of African mostly lightly armed spear men, intending to employ African troops in Spain, and Spanish infantry in Africa, in the belief that service by in each in a foreign country would provide a mutual guarantee of good behavior. He sent 13,850 scutum bearers to Africa with 870 slingers from the Balearic Islands and 1200 horsemen of different nationalities, some to serve in different parts of Africa, some to garrison Carthage, at the same time he dispatched officers to raise a levy from the Spanish areas dependent on him, with orders that 4000 picked men from these be sent to the City to strengthen the garrison there, and also to act as hostages. {Livius Book XXI 22.)

(Editors note: The Latin here should be noted that "armature" could be lightly armed or armored. Since "light" usually means "light armed" or skirmishing infantry, these African infantry cannot be this, they are spear men expected to fight close order in phalanx. Livius is telling his audience they are not wearing the heavy Celtic mail of the legions, instead they are wearing the Greek linen spolis, or are just wearing tunics. The fashionable view today is that they are wearing linen corslets, however, some still believe that many would arrive unarmored and later scavenge armor from the battlefield. It was usually of a sign of a well paid mercenary to wear the best armor, but it sounds like these are levies and not that well paid. The Spanish scutum bearing infantry are of course, scutarii.)

Hannibal's March Begins

In 218 B.C.E., he crossed the Ebro River with 90,000 foot, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants [Livius] or 80,000 foot, 10,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants according to Polybios. He then subdued the Ilegetes, Bargusii, Aerenosii, Ausetanii, and Andosini tribes between the Ebro River and Pyrenees Mountains, storming several cities in the process. His losses were heavy and the subjugation of the territory took time.

Some troops, clearly dismayed by the sight of the Pyrenees and the distinct lack of loot north of the Ebro, refused to march further. Hannibal sent these 3000 Carpetanian foot, along with 7,000 other less than adventurous troops, back home. In addition, he detached 10,000 troops, 1,000 cavalry, and his heavy baggage under his brother Hanno to keep the newly-conquered region in check.

He crossed the Pyrenees into Gaul with 50,000 foot, 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants. They were veteran troops, as eager to reach Italy as their commander, and traveling light.

The Romans, upon hearing news of Hannibal's relatively quick march from the Ebro to the Pyrenees, dispatched legions under Publius Cornelius Scipio and Tiberias Sempronius Longus to take Spain (Scipio) and invade Africa (Longus). A revolt and invasion by the Boii and Insubres tribes in northern Italy soon threw off the Roman timetable. While the Romans suppressed the revolt, and Scipio transported his troops by sea to Massilia, Hannibal marched towards Italy.

The Rhone Crossing

According to Polybios, Hannibal's army averaged about 14km per day, scaring or bribing tribes into letting them pass. At a place "four days from the sea, where the river is single" in the territory of the Gallic Volcae, Hannibal prepared to cross the Rhone River. Here, the Volcae decided to make a stand on the other side of the River.

Hannibal sent a detachment of troops under Hanno, son of Bomilcar, 200 stades (about 35km) upriver to cross and come in behind the Volcae troops on the other side of the river. The plan, executed over several days and coordinated by smoke signal, worked to perfection. The Volcae dissolved as troops under Hanno struck their rear and Hannibal crossed the Rhone in pursuit.

About this time, Hannibal learned that a Roman army was at Massilia and sent 500 Numidian light cavalry down river as scouting force. Scipio, previously hearing that Hannibal had reached the Rhone, had sent 300 Roman and Celt cavalry upriver. The two recon elements met, a battle ensued, and the Numidians took the worst of it, losing 200 troops versus a loss of 140 Romans and Celts [as per Polybius] or 160 Romans and Celts [as per Livius].

Indeed, the Romans chased the Numidians back to the main Carthaginian camp, gazed at the troops inside, and turned about to warn Scipio. Hannibal sped up crossing with the rest of his troops, now numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and the 37 elephants [Polybius], and dispatched just about all his cavalry as a blocking force. After he crossed, and with the cavalry and elephants serving as a rearguard, Hannibal marched four days up river "as if he was heading for the center of Europe" [Polybios]. Scipio arrived three days after Hannibal had left, learned of the plan to march across the Alps from Iberian deserters, and split his forces. He sent his brother Gnaeus on to Spain with the fleet and army while he returned to Rome with his bodyguard.

The Island

These four days of steady marching brought Hannibal to a place called 'The Island,' (Insula Allobroges) a triangular area in the neighborhood of the Allobroges that proved well populated and bountiful. It's described as similar to the Nile Delta region, with two rivers, the Rhone and Skaras [Polybios] (or Isaras or Arar [Livius]) coming to a point and the third side being "a range of mountains difficult to approach or even penetrate."

Here, Hannibal settled a dispute over tribal succession in favor of a chieftain named Brancus, who repaid Hannibal's decision with winter clothing, supplies, guides, and protection from the Allobroges. Polybios said Hannibal's army marched for 10 days along the river, about 800 stadia (140km), before coming to a place where he would begin the ascent of the Alps. Livius noted that the army "turned left" and marched through or near the territories of the Tricastini, Vocontii, and Tricorii before reaching the Druentia River. After that, Hannibal advanced across open ground until coming to the place where the Carthaginians would ascend the Alps. When the Carthaginians reached the foothills of the Alps, his protection left him, and the Allobroges barred his way at a particularly narrow defile.

The Ascent

Hannibal sent out Gallic scouts to probe the spot, and they reported that the Allobroges retired at night to a nearby town, leaving the defile vacant. With this knowledge, Hannibal seized the defile at night. When the natives came back the next morning, Hannibal was already passing his army through the defile and along a mountainside track. The Allobroges attacked, causing considerable losses on the strung out Carthaginians, but a sharp counterattack led by Hannibal cleared the natives, chased them, and captured the town. After a pause to reform the army and pilfer the cattle, wheat, and other plunder from the town, the Carthaginian march continued.

Over the next three days, the army marched in comparative safety, but on the fourth day, he met with tribal envoys who professed peace and friendship. He accepted the overtures with suspicion, and two days later, at another particularly narrow gorge, he was attacked by these apparent friends, with the army essentially cut in two. Hannibal being suspicious, had placed precautions, including a modified order of march, and this served him well. Although initially divided, the next day found the Carthaginians victorious over the ambushers, and they continued their march to the summit and the fabled Alpine pass. Although no more major battles occurred, numerous tribal native raids caused losses during this time.

The Pass

Here Hannibal camped and recovered his men's morale and even regained a few lost baggage animals. It was the season of the setting of the Pleiades. To buoy their spirits, he pointed at the plains of the Po Valley below and said, "My men, you are at this moment passing the protective barrier of Italy--nay, more, you are walking over the very walls of Rome. Henceforward, all will be easy going--no more hills to climb. After a fight or two, you will have the capital of Italy, the citadel of Rome, in the hollow of your hands." [Livius XXI, 35]

The descent was as treacherous as the ascent, with narrow paths and continuous casualties from falling. At one point, Hannibal was forced to rebuild the path as a landslide had erased it from the cliffs and new fallen snow over last year's snow was even more treacherous. For four days the army labored to rebuild the path, even to the extent of cracking rock to create the new path. Ultimately successful, the army descended to more hospitable climate at the foothills of the Alps.

However, the cost had been high. Hannibal's army numbered 12,000 African infantry, 8,000 Spanish infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and the 37 elephants--about half lost between the Rhone River crossing and his arrival in Italy. Livius quoted Lucius Cincius Alimentus, a Roman prisoner of Hannibal's, as saying losses were "36,000 men and an enormous number of horses and pack animals." Yet, here was the core of the army, tough veterans, who would challenge the power of Rome for the next decade.

Hannibal Crosses the Alps A Route Examined and a Proposed Alternate Route

Introduction
The Sources
Hannibal's March: Polybios and Livy
Polybios vs. Livy: Debate Over Details
A New Route Proposed: Begin at the End
A New Route Proposed: Start at the Beginning
A New Route Proposed: Where is the Druentia?
A New Route Proposed: The Pass in the Alps
Aftermath, Conclusion, and Bibliography