Because today it would be inconceivable for wealthy citizens and the state to provide excessively extravagant diversions to the rest of the inhabitants not only continuously, but free and without any direct compensation, we moderns do not comprehend the munea or the ludi. Rendered into today's terms, it would be equivalent of the city council of Los Angeles making a large annual sum available from their own pockets for the upkeep of Dodger Stadium, the salaries of the all the players and coaches including the manager, (currently roughly 120 million dollars) and charge free admission to the public for all 86 games as well as playoffs and the World Series if the team made it that far. In return for this service, the fans would reelect the council, and pass all their bills when asked to do so.

The Republic

The ambition of the Roman aristocratic families kept such a system of bureaucracy going.The fee this tiny group of two dozen Gens had to expend for exclusive dominance of the Roman Republican world was the making of donation of entertainment to the people. While this period of expansion and the mastery of Roman foreign policy was at its height there were difficulties at home.

As the Republic grew, it brought Rome wealth and a plethora of goods. The long wars required a great numberof soldiers, who came from Rome and the allied Italian cities. A soldier's regular period of service in the late Republic was up to twenty years. After that length of time, many veterans could not work in the fields to make a living, or did not want to. This constant drain on the male population meant that many farms had to be run entirely by slaves. The rich senators who possessed the funds to buy huge estates profited, for many small farmers were forced to sell their unprofitable land and move to Rome. The Senate tried to control extravagance by constantly passing new laws, especially when G. lulies Caesar was trying to hold his spectacles to curry the voters' favor.. the urban population, the plebs of the City, gradually developed into an significant component in the Patrician power struggle, and their Paters had to take account of these.

From the late second century BCE the urbanites lobbied for cheap grain. They were supported by individual representatives from the families of the Patricians, out of their desire to solve the problem, but also with an eye to their own careers, for they regarded these amenities to city residents an effective way of gaining the support of potential voters by winning their allegiance. Others did not want to see these few so involved with the Plebs and any reform, so they attempted to disrupt their influence. Since political power was now concentratedin the hands of a few families holding all the major public offices, competition for these offices were increasingly expressed in terms of animosity. This in turn lead to formation of dynasts which was the death knell of the Roman Republic.

By the end of the first century BCE the Roman voters had come to expect that aediles and praetors, who might at a later stage wish to be appointed to the consulship, would be giving ludi, but munea were still formally not being provided for the Roman people by its magistrates. Funerals continued to be the occasion on which games were presented by private individuals with social, but not necessarily political ambitions. The munus was an alternative way of expressing publicly the wealth and social importance of the deceased. This would change after the civil wars.

The Principate

The end of civil wars (28) left one dynast standing: the Julian/Claudians, and one powerful man Octavious Caesar now called Augustus (First citizen) Caesar. Like everything else Roman, he put his stamp on the Games. There is evidence that Augustus give gladiatorial games a major new role in the Roman ceremonial calender although it appears there continued to be changes usually in the officials responsible for staging shows.

By assuming total political power in his own hands, Augustus ended claims to prestige by anyone in public life who was not a member of the imperial family from turning into potential challenges to his own position as Imperator. This had been one of the problems in the old republic. One of the ways of doing this doing this was to make the munea state controlled. The ludi (schools) now became subsidized by the State. This helped manage any senator at Rome attempting gain independent sources ofpopularity especially through ludi or munca. . Augustus would bestow or take away any glory as he saw fit. He imposed his own solution at Rome, monopolizing the glory and decreeing about who was to give it out, in other words to those who were not a political threat to his office.

In carrying out this policy as early as the early 20s BCE, Augustus had restricted the praetors to a slim number of gladiatorial shows during their year of office, with even the number of participants defined. Cassius Dio tells us, "Furthermore the Praetors who were used to expending efforts to carry out their duties, putting on extravagant shows found themselves limited to only two, and of these no more then 120 Gladiators could participate." [Roman History LIV 2.4]

This did not limit Augustus. He tells us in his Res gestae "On three occasions I gave a gladiatorial show on my own behalf, and fifteen times on the behalf of my sons or grandsons. About ten thousand fought in those shows" Since the Roman matrons had developed a taste for gladiator bouts, acting as infatuated school girls in the stands, Augustus decided to do something about this show of indecency. As Suetonius says "Also whereas men and women had hitherto sat together, Augustus confined the women to the back rows at the shows; the only ones exempt from this rule was being the Vestal Virgins." [The Twelve Caesars "Augustus" 44.3]

His successor Tiberus Caesar in 27 AD banned anyone without being an equestrian (knight class) from providing munera, this came about since there was a riot in Pollentia, Liguria by citizensbeing denied a munus. Suetonius again: "The townsfolk would not allow not let the corpse of a centurion be removed from the market-place until his heirs had agreed to meet their importunate demands for a gladiatorial show." [The Twelve Caesars "Tiberus" 37.3.]

Tiberus, who disliked city riots, sent cohortes of auxillaries from the surrounding area with a cohors of Practorian Guard with orders to "consign the guilty inhabitants and magistrates to life imprisonment." [The Twelve Caesars "Tiberus" 37.41.]

The interest shown in spectacles of all kinds was continued by Caligula (G. Caesar) who trained as Thracian style gladiator and nearly went bankrupt staging spectacles, only his timely assignation prevented that from occurring.

Claudius and Nero helped to create an atmosphere where being a Roman citizen meant being prepared to take the games as a serious diversion. Claudius introduced naval battles as part of the munus. The largest with 19,000 fighters took place on Lake Fucino. When Nero's visited his new colony of Pozzuoli in 64-6 this led directly to the rebuilding and enlargement of the amphitheater there by L. Cassius Cerealis to allow for greater spectacles to please his emperor.

Unhappy citizens might show their displeasure with a show by rioting, such as at Pompeii in 59. Extreme reactions on the part of the audience had to be punished as a failure to act in accordance with Roman morality. Tacitus tells us " About the same time a trifling beginning led to frightful bloodshed between the inhabitants of Nuceria and Pompeii, at a gladiatorial show exhibited by Livineius Regulus who bad been, as I have related, expelled from the Senate. With the unruly spirit of townsfolk. They began with abusive language of each other; then they took up stones and at last weapons, the advantage resting with the populace of Pompeii, where the show was being exhibited. And so there were brought to Rome a number of the people of Nuceria, with their bodies mutilated by wounds, and many lamented the deaths of children or of parents. The emperor (Nero) entrusted the trial of the case to the Senate, and the Senate in turn to the consuls, and then again the matter being referred back to the Senators, who set forth that the inhabitants of Pompeii were forbidden to have any such public gathering for ten years, and all associations they had formed in defiance of the laws were dissolved. Livineius and the others who had excited the disturbance, were punished with exile. [Tacitus "Annals" XIV . 17]

Depriving the populace of Pompeii of muneas for ten years was indeed a heavy punishment for the Gladiator crazed city. Pompeii is just one example, of the popularity of the contests under the Principate. Other Emperors continued to use the Games as way to gain favor with the populace. Under Favius Vespasionus, who not born in Rome, a huge arena was constructed to solidify his favor with the Roman people. This became known as the Colosseum, whose ruins marvel us today. His son Flavius Titius presided over its opening with the games lasting a hundred days. It boasted of the highest body count of any munus so far, and Flavius Domitian completed the Flavians' preoccupation with gladiators by ending all private shows. As Suetonius informs: "He had gladiatorial shows by torchlights in which women as well as men took part. Nor did he forget the origin of the games, given by quaestors, these he revived, but forbade them to all else." [Seutonius The Lives of XII Caesars "Domitian" 4.]

With the ending of private showings the muneus lost their ritualistic purpose.. They would just be another Imperial entertainment from now on. The Games also used prisoners of war to celebrate and recreate Roman triumphs, after the Dacian Wars of Trajanus, he brought the plunder and prisoners of Dacia who were sacrificed in masses to glorify Rome's victories "When the Emperor returned to Rome he gave spectacles lasting for one hundred and twenty three days during which eleven thousand were slain and ten thousand gladiators fought." [Cassius Dio's "History of Rome" Book LXVIII 15.1]

The equivalent of two legiones fought over a four month period to entertain the masses and extol Roman superiority over the Barbarian. This would be like New Yorkers flocking to Shea stadium after the Gulf War to watch companies from two army divisions fight with Iraqi POWs daily until all the POWs were dead. Is it any wonder we find Roman culture so mesmerizing? How can such a culture of law, order and intelligence be so hideous as well?

Only Rome has the answer.

Commodus Antoninus

No discussion about Gladiators during the Principate would be complete without the mention of Commodus Antoninus, the "gladiator" emperor. Made famous once more by the movie Gladiator, Commodus' fascination with gladiators stemmed from Faustina, his mother's, obsession with them. He may have had gladiator blood. "Many relate, however, that Commodus was actually begotten in adultery, since it is reasonably well known that Faustina would chose both sailors and gladiators as paramours for herself at Caieta. When Marcus Aurelius was told about her, so he might divorce her - if not execute her - he was reported to say: 'If we send our wife away, we must give back her dowry - and what dowry did she have but the Empire. "' (Referring to his father in law Pius who adopted him at the desire of the Emperor Hadrian) ["Lives of the Later Caesars- Julius' Marcus Antoninus (Aurelius) the Philosopher" 2.5 ]

Commodus was a psychopath. He gloried in others' death and suffering. In fact when be was 12, "he happened to have a bath in such tepid water, be ordered the bath attendant thrown in the furnace. Where upon a sheep was burned instead by the tutor who had been given the order so that smell would convince Antoninus the penalty bad been paid." [Lives of the Later Caesars - Aelius' Commodus Antoninus"2.8]

He loved the games, Aelius says he drove the chariot in the races and "he also engaged in the gladiatorial combat, and accepted a gladiator's name, with pleasure as if he were accepting triumphal honors. He always entered public shows as often as he did so he ordered it to be inscribed into the public records. These say in fact he is to have fought seven hundred and thirty five times." [Lives of the Later Caesars- Aelius' Commodus Antoninus"12.3]

His death (192) was by a household conspiracy that was almost in self defense, since he might have already had caused the death of fifteen thousand by time of the fatal thrust. Dio says "I would render my narrative very tedious were I to give a detailed report of all the persons put to death by Commodus." [Cassius Dio "Roman History" Book LXXIII .3]

With the death of Commodus, the Empire degenerated into the Barrack's Emperors period, successful or wealthy generals were raised to the purple only to be dragged down and executed by other successful, wealthy generals. The Imperial schools continued to churn out gladiators for spectacle during this time though now there were growing protests against these. And in the forefront of this movement was the sect called the Christians.

The End. The Dominate

Under a Barracks Emperor named Diocletian, the empire was reunited (284) and revived, by setting up a different system of government than the old principate one. It would remain Imperial but now oriental elements were added. Realizing that the Empire had become too unwieldy, Diocletian split up the Empire into four regions. There would be two Emperors (Augusti) and two Emperors in training (the Caesares) who would oversee the regions. This was very comparable to the old Persian satrap system.

During their reign, the two Augusti, reformed the provinces giving them a new administrative structure, the currency was amended and the state fixed prices in an attempt to end inflation. This tetrarchy system was a success. As long as the four rulers agreed with each other, that is. In order to prevent the civil wars that had plagued the empire, each Augusti would retire upon reaching a certain age, and the Caesares would become Augusti, who in turn would appoint new Caesares. The system would have continued to work, the empire would have experienced administrators taking over positions of power after learning the job under their precursors, but the successors of Diocletian were unwilling to relinquish power and soon at each other throats again.

In the ensuing struggles the emperor Constantine won the decisive battle at the Milvian Bridge outside of Rome in 312. Based on portents indicating the name of Christ was to placed over his shields and banners, the new emperor believed that this oft persecuted god gave him victory and raised the deity to the equal of the other gods of Rome. By making Christianity a religion tolerated by the state under the Edict of Milan in CE 313, he ended a period of persecutions that had lasted for almost 300 years. He himself was not baptized until he was on his deathbed (337), but he was the first emperor to pursue an active pro-Christian policy, and he built lavishly equipped churches in Rome, Constantinople and the Holy Land.

This 'new' religion was a good means of providing ideological backing for the political new start that followed the tetrarchy. Finally, the emperor moved the capital of the empire to the city of Byzantium on the Bosphorus, renouncing that name and giving it his, Constantinople.

More History of the Munus Gladiatorial Contests

Origins
The First Contests in Rome
The Games as a Political Tool
The Demise of the Munus
Ave Imperator: Gladiator Game Rules
Ave Imperator: Record Sheet
Re-enactor: Maximus the Lanista

More History of the Munus Part 2 Gladiatorial Contests

Executing the Munus
The Preparation
Conduct of the Gladiatorial Contests
The Fight and Post Combat
Gladiators and Their Future