Early Samnite type bronze gladiator helmet with feather holders, 2" century BCE. Museum fur Kunst und Gewerbe, Hamburg, Germany

The most famous establishment in Roman spectator sports was undoubtedly the introduction of the gladiatorial contests. One of the famous paintings that has caught the public eye, about the Games and gladiators is the work of Jean-Leon Gerome's "Pollice Verso" (Thumbs turned) (1872). It is a dramatic depiction of a victorious gladiator in the Coliseum requesting a decision from the Vestals since be is in front of their box. They have responded with an enthusiastic "Thumbs Down" indicatingthe gladiatorshould dispatch his fallen foe. In one dramatic swoop all that is good and bad about the Imperial spectacle is portrayed on canvas. It even inspired director Ridley Scott to do the film "Gladiator." However, most of Gerome's ideas are incorrect. Writing and archeological sources prove this out. So as it seems with most beliefs to do with gladiatorial contests. It is the purpose of this short article to disperse some of these fallacies, and present the contests in a new light.

Origins

The belief of spilling blood beside a grave is very old and occurs in almost all ancient Mediterranean cultures. The blood was supposed to appease the dead with the living. The origin of the "munus" (ritualistic duty) in religious worship was never overlooked in Roman ceremony, an d even the author Tertullius, writing as late as AD 200, condemning the barbaric gladiatorial contests says: "For of old, in the belief that the souls of the dead are appeased with human blood, they used at funerals to sacrifice captives or slaves of poor value whom they bought. After-wards, it seemed a good philosophy to obscure their impiety by making it a pleasure. So they found comfort for death in murderof many." Tertullius De Spectaculis, 12

In the early Republic the Roman games ("Ludi") held in honor of the gods, included theatrical presentations and chariot-racing, but interestingly gladiatorial contests were not included. These would generally be for the funerals of influential Romans, whose "Gens" (families) took this opportunity to demonstrate their power and affluence. Usually the deceased himself had left instructions for his funeral arrangementsin his will. Fulfilling his directions was the important duty of his heirs, and was known as the "munus." For this reason, the classical term for the gladiatorial contest was "immus" (PI: "munera"), in comparison to the games (Ludi), which were consecrated to a deity during the republic and organized by magistrates of the state.

Today it is believed to be hard to comprehend the enthusiasm felt by the Romans for these bloody demonstrations in the "harena" (sand). However, we should not forget we are children of Rome and that we still enjoy a horror movie, are fascinated by pictures of tragedies, or enjoy competitive sports. This is one of the reasons I think the viewing of NASCAR racing has increased is the chance of death or maiming. It sets the final approval on the victory. Man has been tested in his metal cages, and has conquered. The pleasure that results is a primal feeling going back to the dawn of time. I believe if we bad munera today they would be well attended, much like the boxing matches in Las Vegas.

From were did Rome adopt the gladiator tradition? The question was a subject of controversy among theorists for a long time, since it was not something that interested early Roman writers. In fact it is mentioned only in the Deipnosopbistai (Banquet Manners) by the Greek author Atbenaeus, writing in the first century AD. Athenaeus cites an older historian, Nikolaos of Damascus' book Ethon Synagoge: "A collection of strange peoples' customs" circa 14 BCE as saying that the Romans adopted gladiatorial games from the Etruscans. This theory was long accepted by scholars as Rome did follow the lead of the Etruscans in many other areas of life and the Etruscans were very interested in the afterlife. This is one possible explanation that the Romans took over gladiatorial contests from the Etruscans.

Unfortunately, existing Etruscan monuments especially funeral, show no existence of gladiatorial contests, which is rather surprising since the wall paintings (frescoes) found in the tombs of rich Etruscans show a assortment of contests, horseback races and athletic competitions - but nothing that could be interpreted as gladiators or contests. If the Etruscans did practice blood appeasement, likely it is as Tertullius indicates: at funerals they would sacrifice captives or slaves. In order to discover the origin of the contest, we must travel south to the lands of the Oscans. There are found lavish tomb paintings which possibly answers the question of where the gladiators began.

These frescoes come chiefly from Paestum, a city in Campania, near Captia. These were painted between 370 and 340 BCE during the height of Oscan domination of Campania and depict various scenes at funeral games, including a chariot-race, boxing, and a duel between two warriors armed with helmets, shields and spears. Are these proto gladiators?

The answer appears to be yes. In some paintings what appears to be a referee or marshal stands besides the fighting pair. There are obviously regulations involved which makes it a contest and more important they are connected with funeral processions and the following games honoring the dead man. These must be a direct reproduction of the later munera of Rome. It is doubtful the term 'gladiator' could be used at this early period, since is nothing known of the origin and position in life of any of the men depicted.

There are other additional arguments in identifying Campania as the realm where the gladiatorial fights originated:

A. The first stone amphitheaters were built there, and it was the site of the most important gladiatorial schools.

B. A style of fighting in gladiatorial contests is called Samnite after Rome's great Oscanenemy and eventual ally. Etruscans are never alluded to.

C. Our first mention of a Gladiatorial contest in Rome is in 264 BCE, according the historian Livius. He tells us earlier that a war against the Samnites ends in mid-260s. Likely these were "moping up" operations against Pyrrhos' Samnite allies after he was defeated at Beneventurn in 275. Are these gladiators Samnite prisoners of war? Are they carrying out a cultural practice that Romans found to be fascinating? Alas, Livius doesn't tell us. It is a serious speculation though. Campania fell to the Romans in the 340s. Paestum becomes Roman in the 270s. By the end of the third century the area was called the Romano-Campanian state linked to Rome by the via Appia. (See J. Heurgon "Capoue" (Capua) for more on this occurrence.) After Rome, Capua was the most important city in Italy, until its defection from Rome during the second Punic War. It would appear that indeed the Gladiatorial tradition was adopted by the Romans from the Oscans.

More History of the Munus Gladiatorial Contests

Origins
The First Contests in Rome
The Games as a Political Tool
The Demise of the Munus
Ave Imperator: Gladiator Game Rules
Ave Imperator: Record Sheet
Re-enactor: Maximus the Lanista

More History of the Munus Part 2 Gladiatorial Contests

Executing the Munus
The Preparation
Conduct of the Gladiatorial Contests
The Fight and Post Combat
Gladiators and Their Future