As mentioned above, in our first written mention of a munus, 264 BCE. (487 AUC), Livius tells us: "At the magnificent funeral ceremonies of Decimus Junius Pero these being arranged by his two sons, Decimus and Marcius, three pairs of swordsmen appeared at the Forum Boarium. They fought to the death until one was left alive. Decimus the younger freed him." Livius, History of Rome, XVI. 16.

It doesn't say if these are Samnites, but the timing, at the end of the Epriot War and just before the first Punic War, seems to indicate that they are. Rome was involved in a major pacification program of the Samnites and Bruttians, both Oscan tribes.

The next mention of munus is in 216 BCE (537 AUC): Again Livius tells us: "In honor of Marcus Aernilius Lepidus, who had been augur and twice consul, his three sons, Lucius, Marcus and Quintus organized funeral games lasting three days, including the exhibition in the Forum of twenty-twopairs of gladiators." Livius, History of Rome, X_XIII, 30, 5

The second Punic war was underway at this time, so these also must have been prisoners of war. Notice that Livius now uses the term "gladiator" not "ensishomous" (swordsman) like before. Something must have happened to the munera, during those 48 years. It is obvious that the contests have been established, with defined terms and rules. And they have grown in popularity from a nine man round robin contest, to a organized event of 44 men! Anyone who has managed any gathering knows howjust hard this is. It appears that immera were growing in popularity and worse were expected to be given at influential funerals by the deceased's relatives. Rome was developing an appetite for blood appeasement contests, with the organizers seemingly wanting to up the ante at each contest.

At M. Valerius Laevinus funeral (200)25 pairs fought. At Publius Licinius' munus (183) 60 pairs. In 174, Titius Flamininus in honor of his father, staged a three day event in which involved 75 pairs! Livius says: "Of the several small exhibitions of gladiators were give to the public this year, the only one was truly remarkable was that of Titius Flamininius which he gave on the occasion of his father's death." Livius, History of Rome, XLL 28, 4. Truly remarkable indeed. The spectacular immus was becoming expected, even anticipated.

The Psychology of the Event in Rome

Why was Rome so intrigued by spectator events? Livius answers our question himself for his reading audience. "Amongst the humble origins of other institutions it has seemed worth while to set down the early history of the play, that it might be seen how sober were the beginnings of an art that has these days reached a point where opulent kingdoms could hardly support its mad extravagance" (Livius History of Rome VII,2).

Romans while being austere, have always had a thrust for greatness. Lock at their legends, their triumphs, their own mythical history. The Ludi gave the common people three things:

A. Continuity.

What makes baseball America's national pastime? Its continuity. It makes a connection between generations that is important. How many times have you seen grandfather father, and son with his mitt at the game? Why? Because grandfather introduced the game to the father who in turn introduced it to his son. The same would be true among the Romans. Whole families followed the exploits of a favorite gladiator or chariot driver, much like we follow Mark Maguire's home run records, today. It cemented generations, which for the Roman "Familias", was very important.

B. Religious implications.

The Romans were more reverent then most, but their religion was not based on faith. Theirs were based on a pact with group of supernatural beings, who had human appearance, made human mistakes, and granted or turned down requests with no enmity. By attending the Ludi held in honor of the god, the Roman people were renewing their alliance with this powerful being, by showing veneration in attending.

C. Diversion.

Romans like to be entertained. Life in Rome must have been very tedious, except for the pursuit of staying alive. You would be up just before sunrise, and go to bed shortly after dusk. If you had money, you could afford lamps, but the oil was greasy, and it leaked through the semi-porous sides of the lamp. It was better to retire until daybreak. There were libraries true, but unless you were very rich and able to buy books for your personal library with your personal lamp, you were forced to read in the public bibliotheica, since there was no loan of books like today. Usually if you were not working, you might head down to Forum and look over the scene there. Romans geared their life around religious holidays and public events since it broke up the humdrum of daily existence.

Therefore these spectator events became very important in the life of the ordinary Roman. In turn this importance became a stepping stone for those who wanted to pursue political office. The hopeful magistrate who put on the best games had the best chance of being elected. The author Juvenlius laments long after the demise of the Republic about the increasing disinterest of the Roman people in politics, but this was also true in the Republic: "The Public has long since cast off it's responsibilities. The people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for two things, bread (grain) and circuses (entertainment)."

More History of the Munus Gladiatorial Contests

Origins
The First Contests in Rome
The Games as a Political Tool
The Demise of the Munus
Ave Imperator: Gladiator Game Rules
Ave Imperator: Record Sheet
Re-enactor: Maximus the Lanista

More History of the Munus Part 2 Gladiatorial Contests

Executing the Munus
The Preparation
Conduct of the Gladiatorial Contests
The Fight and Post Combat
Gladiators and Their Future