The use of firearms was rare during the pre-1850 era. Power was determined by how many heavily armored cavalrymen that a chief could field (Often a town’s cavalry numbered only in the tens.) An estimated 90% of any given army or raiding force was composed of infantry. Heavy armor, spears and later a few firearms were often stored in town controlled armories. A chief would arm his local clan members with the spears and armor from the armory. The masses of the levies arrived on the field with privately owned weapons. These levies continued to be armed with a bow and knife or sword.

Examples of army strength includes a Kano could raise 7,000 cavalry in 1820. Sokoto at the same time could raise a total of 21,000 cavalry. Kanembu could raise 9,000 men in 1820 and its Shuwa and Bornu allies could raise another 5,000 men.

Spear blades from the area tended to be long and thin. But the Kebbawa preferred to use a barbed multi-point spear blade.

Many of the arrows were poisoned. The Kebbawa are reported to have used a barbed multi-point arrow similar to their spear blade. The barbed point was considered just as effective as poisoned arrows. There is limited indication that Sokoto preferred the barbed arrow since the use of poison was against the Quran. Even if poisoned arrows were not used by the Sokoto, they were certainly used by their pagan allies. There is some indication that Sokoto warriors did use poisoned arrows against pagans. The Sokoto warrior’s lack of training reduced much of the fire to volley fire rather than aimed fire.

The Sokoto provided flintlock and matchlocks to slave and servants that protected leaders. Often the muskets were broken, missing flint or out of ammunition (powder and balls). Firearms were found more among the pagans than the Sokoto. The guns were used by guards, even if they did not work, as a sign of authority. Most of the guns were kept in a town’s armory until needed. The towns of Nupe, Gobir, Zaria and Kano are noted for a large number of guns. The pagans had as much trouble as the Sokoto in keeping the guns operational. Among the Sokoto the local emir was responsible for obtaining firearms. Some Sokoto armies are reported as not having a single gun while others (under the Vizier and Marafa) are noted for fielding a large number of servant guards with guns.

The Hausa pagans wore padded cotton armor, lifidi, but the Sokoto did not adopt lifidi until Bello introduced it when he came to power. The purpose of the lifidi was to provide protection to both men and horses from both poisoned arrows and the barbed arrows. Early Sokoto nobles preferred to wear chain armor under their robes rather than lifidi. Much of the artwork indicates that armor was worn under the robes.

Most of the warriors among the Sokoto were untrained. The time required in training was considered a waste of time and a drain on resources. Some warriors among the pagan cities were trained especially in the use of the long spear and shield. The Kannembu spearmen of the Bornu area are noted as being well enough to fight in a shield wall.

Flags were used but comments on their color are limited. The Shaikh would issue a blessed flag to the commander when a campaign was authorized. The Shaikh was known to have a large white standard. It was plain except for some Arabic printing in the corner near the staff. A smaller blue flag is mentioned as being carried by a commander.

Hausaland and the Growth of the Sokoto Caliphate

Introduction
Equipment, Training and Weapons
Tactics and Campaigns
Pre-Jihad Chronology of Hausaland
The Sokoto-Gobirawa War 1804-07
The Sokoto Early Migration Trek
The Sokoto Empire Consolidation Era 1817-1859
Key Personalities of Sokoto and Hausaland
Key Hausa Towns