The techniques of embalming at this time, were relatively simple, and would probably have been performed by the royal surgeon or physician.

Alleged description of Fairfax as the King's executioner c1649. Fairfax was actually opposed to the regicide and participated in the Restoration.

All clothing would be removed from the body, and an incision made in the lower abdomen, from the base of the sternum (breast-bone) to the pelvis. Through this incision all the soft internal organs were removed. It is these organs which begin to decay first, and the fastest, and which can cause the body to become bloated, with the production of gasses within the abdomen. In extreme cases, a body can quite literally explode.

That the embalming techniques used were not always effective, is evidenced by the body of King Henry VIII who died in 1547. On its last journey to Windsor for burial, Henry's body lay overnight at Syon Abbey. His decomposing body began to swell within the lead and wooden coffins, which eventually caused them to burst open. The next morning, dogs were found consuming some of the fluids which had escaped from the coffins. Henry's vast bulk, and his gout-infected legs, must have presented his embalmers with problems that they were unable to solve.

The soft organs, once removed, were placed in a special casket, known to us today, as a Canopic Chest. They were placed in the chest with a large amount of packing material, usually sawdust or bran, mixed with sweet smelling herbs. The chest was normally buried immediately, in the vault which would later hold the body.

The now empty body cavity would now be cleansed with spirits of wine, and packed full with sawdust or bran, again mixed with herbs. The embalmers incision would then be stitched together, and the body washed. It is not clear whether any attempts were made to drain the blood from the body. There may well at this time have been many variations of technique, depending on the individual embalmer.

Finally, the body would be wrapped in a winding sheet; simply a large sheet, wrapped or rolled around the body, and secured at the head and feet. The material used is known as Cere Cloth; a very fine cotton, impregnated with wax to make it waterproof. At this time bodies were not buried wearing everyday clothes. It is extremely difficult to dress a body, and virtually impossible to put on shoes. Special long shirt-type garments, known as shrouds, are a much later fashion.

Once placed in its coffin, the face of the body, could if required, be exposed by simply untying the head end of the winding sheet and rolling the material back; it could be replaced as easily A large proportion of a body is water, which after death, will seep from the body. The sawdust or bran packing in the body cavity would soak up much moisture, whilst the wax-impregnated cere-cloth would help to contain it.

The body would have been placed in a wooden coffin. This coffin, made of either Elm or Oak, would have been constructed in the Seventeenth Century, exactly the same way as many coffins are made today. Made, no doubt, by the royal cabinet maker, it would have been butt-jointed, with the parts nailed together, There would be a "break" or curve at the shoulders, the widest part of the coffin. The interior would be coated with a thick layer of wood pitch, melted, and painted on to the wood whilst still hot, to make it watertight. A thick layer of bran or sawdust would cover the bottom of the coffin, forming a mattress, and a pillow also fitted, made of material stuffed with sawdust and shavings. A lining of white silk would finish the interior of the coffin.

As with the material used to pack the body cavity, the sawdust in the coffin would also absorb any moisture, and the coffin's coating of pitch would contain any such moisture within the coffin. The exterior of this coffin lid was fixed into position by screws.

LEAD COFFIN

The skills of the plumber was called upon to make a second coffin, of lead; plumbers were well used to handling this material.

"101b. lead" was used; so called as one square foot of such lead, weighed 10 pounds. A large sheet of lead would be placed under the wooden coffin, and was folded up around the wood coffin. There was no common method of forming such a lead coffin, each plumber having his own technique. Any excess lead was cut away, and the joints soldered together with molten lead. A lid was made from a separate piece of lead, and was then soldered to the body of the coffin. This made the coffin completely watertight and airtight. Watertight, not to exclude any external moisture, but to contain any moisture within the coffin; and airtight, to contain any unpleasant smells. Once finally enclosed in a lead coffin, a body could remain unburied for as long as was required.

This finished lead coffin would appear rather unsightly, and the arts of the cabinet maker and upholsterer combined, were used to construct the final outer coffin.

This third coffin would be made of wood, Oak or Elm, but for this coffin, all the external surfaces were covered with black velvet, glued directly on to the wood. Each part of the coffin was covered separately, before finally being assembled. The edges of the coffins were often decorated with several rows of small silver-gilt nails. These nails were used also to create ornamental panels, rectangular in shape, along the sides of the coffin and at either end. It was usual for there to be three panels on either side, and each panel would contain a large handle. There would also be a handle at either end, making a total of eight in all. A complete set of coffins, and their occupant, would be of considerable weight, and six to eight bearers would be needed to carry them.

It was usual for a "breast-plate ", bearing the name of the deceased, and the date of death, to be affixed to the coffin lid above the chest. On royal coffins this plate would be made of silver-gilt, and probably in the shape of a crown.

The inner wood and lead coffins were lowered into the third wood coffin, by heavy webbing tapes. The webbing underneath the lead coffin was not removed, the long ends of the webbing were cut off, and the remaining ends left in the third wood coffin.

The canopic chest, mentioned earlier, would have been constructed in the same way as the coffins: an inner box of wood, covered with a lead shell, and finally enclosed in a more ornate outer chest, of velvet covered wood.

The funeral would be a great public occasion, with a grand show of splendour and pomp. After resting the previous evening in the royal bed chamber, the coffin would be carried in procession to the place of burial. As the body could not be exposed to view, elaborate funeral effigies of the deceased were made, of wood and wax, and carried on the bier with the coffin. Many of these superb royal funeral effigies still survive in Westminster Abbey, and date from early times to the Eighteenth Century. There is a particularly fine collection of effigies of Stuart Monarchs, from Charles II to Queen Anne. The features are remarkably life-like, with faces of wax, often being based on, or being actual death masks, made shortly after death. The figures are dressed in the elaborate robes of state of the time, and are some times shown with the Royal Regalia. The effigies remained at the place of burial, and certainly for the later Stuart Monarchs, virtually replaced any sculptural monument.

Oliver Cromwell's funeral, based on that of the last monarch to have a full state funeral, James I, was in Westminster Abbey, and he too was provided with a funeral effigy, showing him wearing the robes of state. This effigy was sadly destroyed at the restoration of Charles II in 1660.

The burial would be in one of the special vaults, constructed for royal burials. For the last five hundred or so years, most of the royal burials have been either at Windsor Castle, in St. George's Chapel, of in Westminster Abbey. The burial vaults were constructed beneath the floor of the building, and usually as near to the High Altar as possible. One Monarch would construct a vault for his use, and for his successors. Many of these vaults are very full, families were large, and infant mortality high, even amongst the aristocracy, so we find a large number of infant burials in these vaults.

One of the Stuart vaults in Westminster Abbey, for example, contains the bodies of Henry Prince of Wales, Arabella Stuart, four children of Charles I and Queen Henriette, Prince Rupert, Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia, ten children of James II, and seventeen children of Queen Anne . .... plus others. When one vault was full, a new vault was constructed.

The entrances to the vaults are beneath paving slabs, and whilst they are not always obvious, would have been well known to the Abbey Officials. Opening them would have been a relatively easy task.

The funeral service was also a grand occasion, special music was often commissioned, and additional seating installed in the building to accommodate as many people as possible. Since the Reformation, services were conducted according to the Book of Common Prayer, (with the possible exception of Charles II, who died in 1685, a confessed Catholic, and who was buried remarkably quickly, and at night, by his brother James II).

After burial, it was to be expected that a suitably impressive sculptured tomb be erected, above or near the vault, providing a permanent and final memorial to the deceased, or at least that the Funeral Effigy, be placed on public display near the place of burial.

After the blow was struck, two troops of horse advanced towards the Banqueting House, one from Charing Cross, the second from Kings Street, scattering the crowds before them. Within half an hour the area outside the Banqueting House was empty.

One witness wrote afterwards of the terrible scene which took place soon after the axe had fallen. Sir William Dugdale wrote in his diary..

"His head was thrown down by him that took it up. Bruised the face. His hair was cut off. Soldiers dipped their swords in his blood. Base language upon his dead body."

"Mercurius Elencticus", a Royalist publication published on February 7th, said,

"When they had murdered him, such as desired to dip their handkerchiefs or other things in his blood, were admitted for monies. Others bought pieces of board which were dy'd with Us blood, for which the soldiers took of some a shilting, of others half a crowne, more or less, according to the quality of the person that sought it. But none without ready money. And after his body was coffin'd as many as desired to see it were permitted at a certai n rate, by which means the soldiers got store of moneys, insomuch that one was heard to say, 'Wish we had two or three more Majesties to behead, if we could but make such use of them"'.

Sir Roger Manley wrote, "They were inhumanly barbarous to his dead corpse. His hair and blood were sold by parcels. Their hands and sticks whic tinged with his blood, and the block, now cut into chips, as also the sand, sprinkled his sacred gore, were exposed for sale, which were greedily bought, but for different ends, by some as trophies of their slain enemy, and by others as precious reliques of their beloved Prince."

These accounts may well have been elaborated as Royalist propaganda, but nevertheless they do ring true. As we will see later in this account, when Charles' body was exhumed in 1813, the hair was found to be cut very short...

Charles' head and body were placed in the coffin, which had lain ready on the scaffold along with a black velvet pall. The coffin was carried back into the Palace, under the guidance of Bishop Juxon and Herbert.

The King's body lay at Whitehall that night. Sir Purback Temple went there to view the body, and gave "half apiece" for permission to do so. He wrote.. "Axtell, that then kept it, in a scoffing manner took me by the hand and said, 'If thou thinkest there is any sanctity or holiness in it look here', where I saw the head of the blessed martyrd King, lie in a coffin with his body, which smiled as perfectly as if it had been alive."

The executioners had already left Whitehall.. During the trials of the Regicides, after the restoration of Charles II, many statements were taken from witnesses. One Abraham Smith, a Thames Waterman stated.. "My Lord, as soon as the fatal blow was given, I was walking about Whitehall. Down came a file of Musketeers. The firs, t word they said was 'Where be the Bargemen', answer was made 'Here are none'. Away they directed the Hangman into my boat. He gave one of the soldiers half a crown. Saith the soldiers 'Waterman, away with him, begone quickly". The unknown passenger denied that he had executed the King, but the Waterman said that "..he shook, every joint of him".

Charles' body still lay at Whitehall on the 31st. On February 1st, the body was embalmed by a Maidstone Surgeon, Thomas Trapham. The embalming was reputedly performed on the large table in the Dean of Westminsters kitchen, although no records exist which enable this story to be confirmed.

After removing the internal organs, and cleaning the body, the head was sewn back on to the body. Trapham was later to make the remark that he had "Sewed on the head of a Goose". On the same day, the body was moved from Whitehall to St. James' Palace.

Trapham was beset with requests for locks of hair, and other relics; he was to say later that he refused to comply with them, although this may well be in some doubt. Many requested to see the King's body, either out of reverence or curiosity, but few were officially admitted. It is possible that the soldiers on guard here, also made good use of the opportunity to earn some extra money, and allowed a few people in, for a fee.

Trapham was later to be made Surgeon to Oliver Cromwell, and was probably the surgeon who embalmed his body in 1658.

All the clothes were removed from the body, before embalming. We know that this was done, for we have already mentioned Charles' two surviving shirts. After the embalming, the body was wrapped in cere-cloth, and placed in a wooden coffin. No doubt the cheap deal coffin, which had already been used to move the body, was used, as it would have been considered unnecessary for a more substantial coffin to be made. It is doubtful if this cheap coffin would have been lined with silk, as would have been expected, for it would have been badly blood-stained, when the body was placed in it, immediately after the execution. It may have been cleaned and lined, ready to receive the embalmed body; we do not know.

It was probably at this time, that the wood coffin was enclosed in lead, as it had been two days since the execution. Herbert's account states that the lead coffin was closed after embalming, although it is possible that the coffin may have been left open for a short while longer, before the lid was soldered down. No elaborate outer-coffin was provided for Charles, and no inscription of any kind was made on the lead coffin.

More Execution of Charles I

Introduction
Execution
Embalming
Cromwell
Charles I Coffin Opened (1813)
1813 to 1888
The Confession of Richard Brandon
Rainsborowe's Standard

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