Turcomans were mainly nomadic tribes which lead a mounted existence. Their major cities were simple trading centers located at an oasis or in a river valley. The number of warriors who fought in the field averaged one per three tents. The main tribes were the Alili with an estimated 10,000 to 50,000 tents; the Ata with 3,000 to 8,000 tents divided into four main factions; the Chawdor with 10,000 to 20,000 tents in six factions; the Emrali with about 6,000 tents; the Ersari with 10,000 to 50,000 tents in four factions; the Goklen with 12,000 tents in eight to ten branches and most of these were vassals of the Persians by 1880; the Sakar with 2,000 tents; the Salor with 6,000 to 20,000 tents; the Saryk with 9,000 tents; the Tekke (who was considered by the Russians as the most powerful tribe) had 40,000 to 80,000 tents divided into four factions; and the Yomud with 40,00 to 50,000 tents.

A faction or branch was divided into clans (yaps). The term khan was as much hereditary and honorary and did not indicate how many men a leader could muster. The term Sirdar was given to men who had demonstrated military skill.

A war leader was elected in tribal council from among the sirdars and was often called a bahadur. There were not trained officers but tribal leaders among the troops. Every man was elgible for service either as a raider or by defending the camp. Most major towns operated two yasawals of 2,000 men who were commanded by elected bashis. These acted as both a police force and guarded the boundaries of their domain.

Most Turcomans fought in the field on horseback. Foot soldiers were used only when camps or town fortifications were attacked. When infantry were used in the field, they rode camels into battle and dismounted behind a screen of mounted warriors. Most Turcoman raids were to obtain slaves to work in their fields and mines. Their main tactic was one of skirmishing from horseback. They tended to avoid extended contact.

Most fortifications were simple. A ditch surrounded a wall (about 12 feet high) with corner towers and a main entrance. In the middle there was a herd enclosure surrounded by tents set up in an open area. Most oasis contained a fort whether it was occupied or not.

Turcomans dressed similar to warriors of Khiva and Bokara. They tended to wear a universally white shirt. The most common outer coat was of camel hair that ranged in color but had a yellowish tint. Some coats were of a dark color ‘black’. A favorite color for inner cloth was blue. Chiefs would wear the brighter colors or stripes. The most distinctive garment was the sheepskin hat called a chugerma. They were not as large as the Khivian style but were larger than Persian hats. The Tekkes preferred a skull cap or white turban to the chugerma. Footwear tended to be of a reddish leather.

Weapons were of a wide variety. Turcomans still used a bow, lance and saber until the 1820s. The firearm was more common for defenses and grew in popularity as the 1800s progressed. Many troops would use matchlock guns. Flintlocks were common and breechlocks were rare. Firearms always remained in the minority among Turcoman units with agood average being 25-33%. Artillery was rare and limited to the defense of forts.

The Tekkes settled among the Akhal and Merv oasis and offered the most organized resistance to Russian expansion. They made several attempts at alliances with the Afgans and Persians. Also, the Persians would attack them in 1860. A major war occurred in 1877 with the Russians. Resistance to the Russians continued until 1884.

Russian Enemies of Central Asia

Afghanistan
Bokhara Khanate
Khiva Khanate (a.k.a. Khwarizm or Khorezm)
Khokan Khanate
Turcoman Tribes
Russians