ARCHERY

Crossbows were as common as normal bows in the region. It seems that town levies were more likely to have crossbows and rural tribal levies would use primarily bows. The crossbow may have been adopted as a method to penetrate the tough skin of an elephant, but they were not made overly powerful because they did not want to kill the very valuable beast. Archery tactics were often associated with defending a walled town or stockade. In a field battle, after an initial volley they were used to fend off elephants and horses while the main body of troops clashed.

ARTILLERY

Even with exposure to siege engines used by Nan Chao and later Chinese dynasties, the Burmese never developed powerful siege weapons. As a result most walled cities, smaller walled towns and even field palisades tended to be placed under siege rather than assaulted. After 1500 jingals were used extensively in Burma. They were mounted on elephants (1548) and on rafts, which had elevated platforms (1541). In general the cannon obtained from the Chinese were too weak to breach well built walls. Even those guns brought by the Portuguese were often too small to easily breach a town wall.

ASSASSINATION

This was the primary means used to change the government of a town or kingdom. Strangulation, poisoning or drowning were preferred for royalty but arrows and blades were also used. Over 90% of the recognized rulers were deposed of in this fashion

BODYGUARDS

The only full-time regular troops in the service of a ruler were his bodyguard and those of a town’s local governor. Mercenary guards were used but often proved unreliable, especially if from a different ethnic group. The size of the guards varied with the size and power of the kingdom.

In 1080 Sawlu of Pagan 1000 man guard was divided into two companies. By the end of the period covered, the most desired bodyguards were Europeans.

BODYGUARD EQUIPMENT

Early guard units are reported as wearing ‘colorful dresses’. This would be reflective of their mercenary nature and tendency to wear their native dress. The 1080 guard units are recorded as wearing guild helmets and shields. The Guard units in 1173 wore black quilted cloth robes. European bodyguards of the Ava and Honswadi carried muskets inlaid with gold and rubies.

CAMPAIGN SEASON

Campaigns were conducted during the dry season. Since most troops were levies of farmers with planting and harvest periods having to be considered when planning a campaign. The heavy monsoon rains made supplying an invading army difficult. this caused campaigns to be terminated, when the rains began.

INDIAN BODYGUARDS

From 1040-1100 Pagan rulers are noted as having special units of Indian bodyguards. They were armed with their traditional weapons of longbow, spear and long two-handed sword. They are not noted as being used by the later successor states of Burma. Later, Arakan rulers frequently hired Indian mercenaries armed in native fashion. Many of these were Moslem after 1300.

MERCENARIES

Additional Comments on mercenary troops are included under notes on Bodyguards. A local village located in the area to be invaded may be employed as mercenary levies or scouts. Generally mercenaries came from groups of exiles from other towns or ethnic groups. For example the Talaings of Pegu employed 300 exiled Shan in 1330. Non-ethnic mercenaries were generally reliable when not fighting their own ethnic people. When fighting a similar ethnic group, they tended to be unreliable, even if the enemy was responsible for their exile status. After 1500 the most coveted mercenaries were Portuguese seamen with their more effective firearms and cannon. In the 1500s Ava employed a number of Moslem mercenaries.

MILITARY and SLAVE SETTLERS

During the late 1000s, the kingdom of Pagan established over forty military outpost villages among the Shan villages located east of the city. Their duties included guarding the vital rice growing areas in the region, to watch the activities of the Shan and to facilitate the raising of levy troops for Pagan use. These troops were regarded as more loyal if not any better than other tribal levies. A common Burmese practice was to move whole populations from conquered towns back to their territory. These transplanted slave groups were still expected to provide levy troops for defense or a campaign.

PORTUGUESE

After 1500 Portuguese were employed as mercenaries by various city-states. Especially those located along the coast. In the 1540s the Tabinshwehti of Toungoo-Pegu maintained a 400-man bodyguard armed with muskets and light cannon. They wore gold guild morons and had gold inlaid musket parts. Most mercenaries were loyal to a specific ship’s captain with an average of thirty men per boat. The Portuguese were highly valued for their ability to man cannons. Their captor rather than being sold into slavery employed even captured men.

RETINUE-ROYAL

Prior to 1110 AD the king or prince would just as likely ride a horse into battle as an elephant. Anawratha of Pagan rode a horse at the siege of Thaton in 1056 . After 1100 AD a royal commander almost always rode an elephant. Though white elephants were a mark of honor and highly prized, they were generally regarded as too sacred to ride into battle. The queens of a royal commander often accompanied the king on campaign and would watch but not fight in the battle while mounted on an elephant.

RETINUE-NON-ROYAL

Though a successful and famous General could be mounted on an elephant, most of the time they directed the battle while mounted on horses.

SACRED MARKINGS

The elephants, horses and troops’ shields were covered with magical signs of protection and courage. Favorite signs were of the sun and moon but creatures and other items could be used. Also written blessings could be painted on them as well.

SINGLE COMBAT CHALLENGES

Challenges between rival commanders almost always took place while mounted on elephants. As a result the winner was determined by who had the meanest elephant rather than who was the better warrior. Mounted on the elephant were the commander, mahout and often a warrior attendant. A warrior felt obligated to accept a personal challenge only if the challenger was of the same rank. For example king vs king, prince vs prince, general vs general, chieftain vs chieftain.

SUBTREFUGE and DECOYS

While deception was a recognized and accepted diplomatic practice, it was practiced on the battlefield as well. In 1084 the Talaing defenders of Yamankan deployed dummy elephants and soldiers in its adjacent swamps. The Pagan troops who arrived at sunset, immediately launched and attack but diverted crucial troops into the swamp to attack the dummy troops. The Pagan troops were routed by archery fire from the town walls.

TACTICAL DEPLOYMENT

The typical deployment for most Burmese armies included: The Cavalry deployed on the flanks but if heavy jungle was on one flank then light troops would be deployed on that flank with a few cavalry still supporting it. Sometimes a flank would be anchored on a river if that force expected to control the waterway with warconoes.

The center force consisted of masses of levy troops being closely supported by elephant mounted troops. Sometimes the elephants would leave the levy troops behind as they dashed forward to fight the enemy elephants. If the enemy did not have elephants, a force’s elephant generally advanced with the levy troops. Later after 1400 many elephants would have jingals mounted on them. The guard or mercenary troops would form a block in the center-rear of the levy formation. The Guard would advance and defeat the enemy after the rush of the levy troops had disrupted their formations.

After 1400 the center formation consisted of any musketmen and cannon which might be available. The Elephants and levy would rush the enemy after they had been soften up by a musket and cannon barrage.

TOWN DEFENCES

The mark of a prosperous town was the construction of a wall. Walls were often built in a manner so that local terrain, rivers and swamps would funnel the enemy attack toward the strongest section of the defenses. The basic outside wall was a rampart with a palisade. Larger primary towns could add inner walls and water canals to control advance of the attackers. Older cities tended to reinforce an outer log wall with earthen fieldwork’s making them almost impossible to breach with small stone throwers or small cannon. Some older town walls and pagodas were constructed of bricks with bricks being used as a form of tribute from vassals to an overlord. Unless at war, a town did not let smaller villages in their area build walls as a method of making the villages dependent on the town

TROOP TYPES

These notes are based on various comments found in the sources. In the pre-1300 era, the Shan and Talaing tribes are recorded as using fierce warband charges, which relied on melee combat rather than missile fire. After 1300 the Burman are considered to be the best infantry; the Shan had the best elephants and the Talaings maintained the best war canoe fleet.

Also during this era, a Burman king is noted as hiring Shan tribesmen who were exceptional spearmen. . Except for the royal bodyguards and personal retinues maintained by nobles, town rulers or appointed governors, the army was regarded as a levy force. The size of the drilled forces was larger after 1500 especially under the Toungoo-Burman rulers. The Arakanese are noted as sending 1000 soldiers each year for a one-year assignment to guard their land in Chittagong. This implies that they had the time needed to drill these troops and the rotation policy suggests the ability to have a large drilled force back in Arakan itself.

UNIFORM NOTES

Additional notes on uniforms can be found under Bodyguard-equipment. Due to the levy and allied nature of the army, a uniform would be unlikely. Most warriors would wear their tribal dress. However members of a tribe tended to wear the same clothing styles and colors. Some tribes even today are known by a ‘flower color’ which is dominant in their clothing. The Burmese pointed conical hat seems to be a dress mainly worn by the Burman of Pagan between 1050-1267. Shan, Arakan and Talaing troops certainly did not wear them. I am not certain about the later Burman of Toungoo. Other comments on appearance can be found in sections on ethnic groups.

WARSHIPS

The need for river rafts and the use of canoes dominated boat designs. The Burmese were noted as being weak seamen. Even the Talaings of the delta region were regarded as poor sailors by other seafaring countries.

The coastal Arakans were better at naval warfare but could never match the fleets of Ceylon or southern India. The warconoes used on the rivers were massive with up to seventy rowers who would also fight. The bow would often consist of a carved animal figure. The description of their use and even appearance reminds me of Norse longships.

A Brief Military History of Burma

200 to 1600 AD Historical Background
Ethnic Groups and City-States of Burma and the Southeast Asia Region
Notes of Military Tactics and Organization
The Dynasties of Burma