The Battle of Borodino

Revisiting Napoleon's Bloodiest Day

Situation in 1812

by LTC Villahermosa and Matt DeLaMater
artwork by Mark Churms and Steven Palatka

Napoleon invaded Russia in June of 1812 with 600,000 men. Almost half of the soldiers in the French Grande Armee came from countries allied with or occupied by France, including Italians, Germans, and Poles. Former enemies Prussia and Austria were forced to provide troops to help guard the flanks of the main army as it marched further and further into Russia. Napoleon's Empire was at the height of its power, stretching from Spain where his older brother Joseph was king, to the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) which Napoleon had created after his victorious 1807 campaign.

Since 1809 when Napoleon defeated the Fifth Coalition against France, most of Europe had been at peace - and under Napoleon's direct control or immediate influence. Fighting continued in Spain as Spanish, Portuguese and British forces tried to depose the Bonaparte on the throne in Madrid, but it was not on the same scale as the titanic campaigns of 1805, 1806, 1807, or 1809 in central and eastern Europe. The conflict in Spain, known as the Peninsular War, was a continual drain on France's military and economic resources. However, it was not yet a serious threat to Napoleon's Empire which was the largest European territory ruled by one man since Charlemagne one thousand years earlier.

After nearly three years of relative security, Napoleon stripped Spain of 27,000 of his finest troops (providing the British with an opportunity they would take full advantage of) and prepared to attack Russia. Why did Napoleon go to war in 1812?

Britain Stands Alone

After Napoleon's victory over Austria in 1809, Britain was left as the only major enemy of the French Empire still active. Its small army could conduct only limited military actions in Spain, but Britain's large and dominant navy controlled the seas and maintained a blockade of French ports.

Unable to invade England because of its powerful Royal Navy, Napoleon sought to force Britain to sign a peace treaty favorable to France through economic pressure. After the crushing defeat of Prussia in 1806, France gained control of most of the northern ports of Europe. Napoleon therefore instituted a counterblockade against England called the Continental System. This excluded British imports from Europe and posed a severe economic strain on England.

By 1812, the Continental System was making it difficult for Britain to continue financing the war in the Peninsula. According to Rory Muir in his highly acclaimed Britain and the Defeat of Napoleon 1807-1815,

    "If the situation had not imptoved in 1813, the ministers would have been hard pressed to maintain, let alone increase, their efforts in Spain."

It appeared that Napoleon was gradually winning this economic war of attrition.

Russia Deserts the Continental System

Russia was forced to sign a peace with France after the defeat of its army at Friedland in 1807. Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, may have regarded the resulting Treaty of Tilsit as a necessary expedient. Russia was required to support France against Austria when war broke out again in 1809. However, Alexander did little to help Napoleon, and received little in return.

As with many other European nations, the Continental System was hurting Russia even more than England. By 1810 the annual value of Russia's exports had fallen by 40 per cent, and the government was forced to inflate the currency. In 1811 British ships began to enter Russian ports again, breaking the Continental System.

Napoleon chose to meet this challenge to his sovereignty with a military solution. It had worked for him in no less than five previous campaigns since 1796, only the failure of the Egyptian expedition and the ongoing fighting in Spain blemished an otherwise incredibly successful military career. However, this was also the man who had allegedly said in 1805: "A man has his day in war as in other things; I myself shall be good for it another six years, after which even I shall have to stop." Napoleon's innate energy, talent, and genius had been blessed with luck and opportunities. In 1812, at the age of 42, the Fates would abandon him.

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