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Footnotes

[147] Havana had been dubbed "The Key to the New World" through royal decrees of 1634 and 1717.
[148] Thomas Mante served at the siege of Havana as an engineer officer and later wrote the celebrated History of the Late War in North America.
[149] The 1st, 22nd 77th and 95th Regiments (a total of 2,112 men) had sailed from South Carolina under Andrew Lord Rollo, to participate in the capture of Dominica in June of 1761. The 15th, 17th, 27th, 28th, 35th, 40th, 42nd, 43rd, 48th, and 60th Regiments, 107 artillerymen, and 9 engineers (a total of 5,355 men) had sailed from North America in November of 1761 under Rodney and Monckton, to participate in the capture of Martinique, St. Lucia and Grenada.
[150] There is confusion about the distinction between provincial troops, militia, and independent companies. By the time of the "French and Indian War" each of the North American colonies raised battalions of quasi-regular, uniformed, provincial troops under the command of the provincial governor and enlisted for a specific campaign or period of time, typically from May to November of each year. The militia, composed of all adult males, were not a military unit per se but a combination of home guard and stand-by reserve to be used only briefly in extreme emergencies, such as in repelling invasion, but not for campaigns or for offensive action. The independent companies were raised as regulars on a permanent footing and were scattered throughout the colonies to support the local militia in areas where it was not practicable to deploy entire battalions. The pay and training of the independent companies was not on a par with the regulars and their military value was usually deficient. Provincial troops, independent companies, and regulars were among the troops sent by Amherst to Havana, but no militia.
[151] The disastrous 1741 West Indies campaign against Cartagena, Colombia in which large numbers of American troops participated, was still fresh in the minds of the provincials. Losses were so great, mainly from tropical diseases, that in many units only one man in ten came back causing a profoundly negative effect on the provincials' enthusiasm for campaigns abroad, especially in those latitudes.
[152] Albemarle actually arrived at Cape St. Nicholas on May 17.
[153] There were other "Americans" in the regular regiments travelling with Albemarle that also served at Havana but were not a part of the North American contingent. These American-raised regular units were: a. the 48th (Webb's), one of Braddock's regiments decimated at the Monongahela and resurrected with recruits from Pennsylvania and New York; b. the 95th (Burton's), raised in New York; c. the 60th (Royal American), whose very name reflected its origins; and, d. the 40th (Armiger's), raised in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.
[154] Pocock would never know that in spite of these precautions his fleet was still saved by his lucky star. Modern navigational charts confirm that many of the depths shown on the San Lorenzo charts, that the Admiralty so confidently provided him with, reflect inaccurately deeper soundings.
[155] The chain of command for the expedition provided a fine example of the nepotism possible in awarding 18th Century commands. Besides Albemarle being the overall commander, and his brother William commanding one of the two infantry divisions, a third brother, Commodore Augustus Keppel, was second-in-command to Pocock of all naval forces.
[156] Incredibly, Captain Arthur Usher, Hampshire's commander, had left his post to bring a prize into Port Royal, Jamaica.
[157] Running aground on reefs might seem inept for professional seamen, but one only has to be in the Old Bahama Channel without navigational aids or reference points to appreciate the risk. In August of 2002 the author sailed the Channel on the two-masted, steel-hulled, 78-foot motor/sailer Isabela (Capt. Walter Lista). With the benefit of GPS, radar, and modem charts aboard we managed not to run aground.
[158] As one of the regiments that fired the crucial volley that carried the day on the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759, the 58's deserved more than being captured at sea and whisked off to prison without firing a shot.
[159] Lieutenant-General David Dundas in his Memorandum on the Capture of Havana noted that the American provincial troops fell off sooner and were more sickly than the regulars but that there seemed to be no particular distinction in health between the regulars that came directly from Europe and those that after serving in America had participated in the Martinique campaign.
[160] The disease's symptoms started with fever and a yellowing of the skin (hence the English name for the disease), pain in the joints and headaches, and ended in delirium and the vomiting of black blood (the inspiration for Spanish name of vomito negro for the same disease) which could lead to death in as few as three days.
[161] The 92 New York provincials and 396 men of the 58th Regiment that were captured at sea were sent off to prison in Cape Francois (Saint Domingue). The men of the 58th were transported to prison in France but the New York provincials remained imprisoned at the Cape.
[162] To add insult to injury, from the vast booty turned over to the British upon the surrender of Havana, a private's share was only about three British pounds, and even this vested only if he had survived as of the August 13 date of signing the formal articles of capitulation.
[163] The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Vol. IV, page 181 (Letter to William Starham, Philadelphia, December 7, 1762)
[164] David Syrett, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of History, Queens College of the City University of New York