The sale of natives into slavery and European Colonization often overshadow the study of the area of the Western Sudan between the 1600s-1900s. Both of these subjects are related as Moslem non-believers were often sold after capture into slavery. The normal market was other Moslem countries located to the north but the Euro-Americans were willing to pick up the cargo at local ports. As a result delivery to the American market tended to be quicker as opposed to the longer overland routes. While obtaining slaves was not a primary reason for various wars and jihads, slaves became a primary trade item in the pursuit of obtaining firearms to help in conquest of one’s neighbors. Slavery was viewed as a valid alternative to the other common option for captives. Captives were viewed as a drain on the limited resources of the area. Therefore captives who were not sold into slavery were executed. The Moslems tended to make to execution quick but many pagans including the rulers of Benin would sometimes conduct gruesome ritual sacrifices with the captives.

In regards to the Europeans, the Africans viewed them as new markets for their goods and easily controllable. The Africans especially the non-Moslem pagans had very little concept of multi-city nations with large populations. This underestimation of a potential foe would later lead to the various African problems with Europeans establishing and expanding colonies.

These articles cover the military history during this era of Sokoto and Segu-Tukulor with limited information on Oyo, Benin and other city-states of the area. City-states and small ethnically oriented empires of these regions preyed upon various religious and ethnic differences to provide additional income and power that resulted in the slave and other types of trade with its neighbors. A wide gulf erupted between those groups who adopted Islam and those ruling elites who wanted to maintain the various local pagan religions where their power rested.

Sources

The following sources were used to create the articles on the Western Sudan. They were graciously loaned to my local library through the Inter-Library Loan Program.

Benin and the Europeans by Alan Ryder, 1969, Humanities Press. Part of the Ibaden History series.
History of Yoruba by S. Johnson, 1921.
Kingdoms of the Yoruba by R.S. Smith, Methuen Press, 1969.
The New Oyo Empire: 1894-1934 by J.A. Atanda, 1973, Humanities Press. Part of the Ibaden History series.
The Segu-Tukulor Empire by B. O. Qlqruntimehin, 1972, Humanities Press. Part of the Ibaden History series.
A Short History of Benin by J.U. Eghareuba, 1960.
The Sokoto Caliphate by Murray Last, 1967, Humanities Press. Part of the Ibaden History series.
Sokoto Empire and Its Enemies by R.A. Adeleye.
West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century by D. Forde and P.M. Kaberry, 1967.
Yoruba Warfare in the Nineteenth Century by R.S. Smith and J.F.A. Ajayi, Cambridge press, 1964.

Though I have not seen it, I am told that the company of ‘Wargames Foundry’ has produced an informative supplement on the area to go with their ‘Darkest Africa’ range.

Glossary

The following is a Sudan glossary of common terms used throughout the region.

awa or wa: the suffix used to designate a people from or originally from a particular town. Only (wa) was used if the town’s name ended in the letter ‘a’ or a vowel.
Dar al Islam: Land under Islamic rulers
Empire: A ruler influences several local towns and people of different ethnic backgrounds
Imgad: Sudanese vassals of Taureg nobles
Imazegen: Senior Taureg nobility
Ineslemen: Any Moslems among the Taureg minor nobility
Jihad: A Holy War, often conducted against pagans or believers of another faith
Lifid: Cotton padded armor used on horses and by soldiers
Mujahidun: Warriors of a jihad
Muqaddam: a leader
Murabitun: the garrison of a ribat
Ribat: A frontier stronghold, often built around a water source or village
Sudanese: a term used by Moslems to indicate Africans who were non-believers.

Empires of Western Sudan 1600-1900

Introduction
Descriptions of Benin Warriors
Empires: Oyo, Jolof, Masina, and Segu