The Tinder Box:
Germany Just Prior to the Thirty Years War

The underlined issues help fuel the fires of war in the Holy Roman Empire.

The German economy was probably in an economic contraction due to the newer type of ships creating new trade routes as sea. This particularly hurt central and eastern portions of the Holy Roman Empire. This downturn helped create tensions between the classes and resistance to taxes, which were being raised to help pay for the Long War. The Long War was between the Turks and Austria. A rebellion broke out in Bohemia against Austrian leadership, primarily because of Austrian commanders 'snatching defeat from the jaws of victory ' at the battle of Kerestes. The Bohemian nobles raised an army and marched on Vienna. The Austrians then negotiated a settlement regarding taxes (to pay for the Long War) and the 'Letter of Majesty ' which safeguarded Bohemian religous freedom.

Calvinism

A militant form of protestantism that was gaining adherants, it upset the fragile balance between the Lutheran and Catholic faiths. Roundly hated by both sides, the Calvinists returned the favor. The Calvinists had no legal standing and would at least attempt to upset the status quo. Counter Reformation. The Jesuits were the front fighters in trying to recover what had been lost to the Protestants and the Catholic equivalent of the Calvinists. They also pushed against the balance created by the 'Augsburg Confession. ' Ferdinand the II and Maximillan of Bavaria had both received Jesuit education and Jesuit influence was strong in their council meetings and in their confessionals.

The Incident at Donaworth

A riot at Donaworth (1609) allowed the Emperor to step in and ' adjudicate ' the distrurbance. In spite of only two Catholics in the entire town, Emperor Mattihas found in favor of the Catholics, and placed the town in the 'trusteeship' of Maximillan of Bavaria. This put the Protestants on notice of Hapsburg intention to overturn the Augsburg Confession. The Protestant Union, a military alliance, was formed in response. The Unions leader was Frederick of Palantine, ardent Calvinist. Maximillan of Bavaria responded by setting up 'The Catholic League ' to put the German Catholics on the same war footing. By 1618, the radicals of both camps had run off the moderates in both military alliances.

Divine Right

Pressured by the rising costs of war, all kings were trying to improve administration, collect taxes, and centralize government. More money and absolute power to further their dynastic ambitions was the goal of all kings during the 17th century. Buttressed by the concept of 'divine right', each leader forged ahead. How sucessful they were is judged by the results. Some, like Charles the I of England, lost theirs.

This behavior lead to the curtailment of 'traditional freedoms and liberties' and would be met with resistance. Do not be confused, however , in the 17th century a liberty meant 'I don't have to do something others must' and freedom meant 'I can do something others can't.'

Using these definitons, the phrase 'German liberties' is much less high minded and has much less moral ground. ( Before we leave the subject of divine rights of kings, I would like to point out that with few exceptions, (some republics), countries that did not centralize under the king could not sucessfully wage war and were preyed on by their neighbors.) The problem of centralization to pay for war was made more difficult by the political structure of the Holy Roman Empire.

Political Structure

The Holy Roman Empire was over 1000 political entities that had veto power over the Emperors ' actions, if they worked together. They could only act, though, if the Emperor called the diet. The Emperors' strength was his own personel resources and whoever he could cajole or bribe into following him. The Emperor was elected by the seven Electors, who had great prestige and were the power brokers of Germany. Nothing was accomplished without their consent.

The Elector of Bohemia, a nominally elected king, could only vote for electing an Emperor and could not take action on any other business. The Bohemian King was traditionally Hapsburg. The Elector of Brandenberg was Calvinist but his country was Lutheran. The Elector of Saxony was Lutheran. The Elector of Palantine was Calvinist, making three Protestant, secular electors. The Bishops of Trier, Cologne, and Mainz were the three Catholic, ecclesiastic Electors. No concrete action would be taken other than fighting the Turks, increasing their own power at the expense of others in Germany, (but only if the power was increased equally,) and electing an Emperor. Suprisingly, this new emperor would be a Hapsburg, with Bohemia casting the deciding vote. In short, the politcal structure was paralized.

Austria

(2.6 million pop.) Under the leadership of Ferdinand, "I'd rather rule a desert than heritics," Ferdinand II was commited to a policy of counter reformation everywhere. Ferdinand II also wished to make the Holy Roman Empire his empire in fact as well as name. This desire to centralize power and wipe out Protestants caused the war to continue and widen in scope. His son, Ferdinand III, was more pragmatic and when faced with losing all, as Ferdinand II once did, he conceeded to 'half a loaf ' rather than no bread.

Saxony

(1 Million Pop.) John George was the leader of the Lutheran faction in Germany. He often sought ' a third way ' between the radicals of both confessional camps. He hated foreign influence in Germany and tried to follow his fathers', sucessful, policy of backing the emperor. His fathers' policy was why John George and not the Saxe Weimar branch controlled most of Saxony.

Eventually forced to fight to protect his faith and country against the Emperor, he wasn't happy about it and switched sides as soon as his faith and country were secure. A notable drunkard in a country of renowned drunkards, his leadership was not always well thought out.

Brandenburg

(1 million pop.) John William was a weak man who was Calvinist in a Lutheran country with Catholic advisors. He wished mostly to avoid any war or responsiblity. He held Ducal Prussia, and as such owed fealty to the Polish king. He would inherit Pomerania when old Duke Bogoslav died. And controlled Cleves, Mark and Julich in 'trusteeship ' from the Emperor until the sucession issues were decided.

Of couse, if the sucession could not be decided, he could keep them forever. Managed not to lose his rights to these properties, though occupied militarily, until his son, (the Great Elector), could put a firm hand on the tiller.

Bavaria

(1 million pop.) Maximillian was a good adimistrator with a sound war chest. Leader of the Catholic League, he wished to wipe out heresy and increase his property. Additionally he coveted an electorship. Bavaria was first tier in strength but would not be looked upon as first tier unless Maximillan could become an elector. Maximillan would not risk losing all, his dynasty was more important than advancing his faith.

Bohemia

(2 million pop.) Half of Austrian Hapsburg revenue came from Bohemia, Lusiatia, Moravia, and Silesia, refered to as the Bohemian provinces. These proviences had four religions: Lutheran, Catholic, Ultraquist, and Bretheran. ( the last two grew out of the Hussite movement.) None of the four would ally for any reason except tactical expediency. Bohemia was viewed as rich provinces but with the changes in trade routes and the traditional mining of silver in decline, the economy was in depression.

Bohemia also had few 'yeoman ' farmers to ally with the town burghers, Additionally, a majority of the great nobles were Catholic. However, when the Emperor tried to turn back the clock on the 'liberties ' , all classes reacted swiftly and effectively with a coup. (The defenstration of Prague) Governing, they found, was much more difficult than rebelling to satisfy their just claims. The Emperor was not interested in negotiating, as was traditional and was what the Bohemians expected, but in crushing them.

This divergent viewpoint hampered the Bohemians from making a concerted effort to gain their independence. Narrow self interest, false economy, and no real desire to settle the issue militarily doomed Bohemia to lose all.

The Bohemiams rebelled with the tradional goal of making it unpleasant enough to force negotiations, they did not recognize that Ferdinand was not playing by the rules.

Palantine

(600,000 pop.) Frederick and his advisor, Christian Of Anhalt, were die hard Calvinists that wished to convert all to their faith and gain offical status. They desired to lead a Protestant coalition to victory with Frederick as its leader, instead of Ferdinand.

Of course, his coalition liked everything but the Frederick leading part, they were not interested in trading Hapsburg domination for Palantine. Elizabeth, duaghter of James the I, was Fredericks ' wife, with all the Stuart family flaws. James the I of England fancied himself a peacemaker and did not want German commitments, so would only offer token help. Fredrick accepted the Bohemian crown from the rebels with no real thought of the consequences and no real support. Along with Ferdinand the II, Fredericks 'religous beliefs and ambition would allow no compromise, even at the cost of his throne.

The war would have been much shorter if either could have compromised. Spain's policy towards the Netherlands is the only other example of refusal to face either giving in or losing all, and even Spain gave up after crippling the dynasty.

Trier

(400,000 POP.) A pro-French and pro-counter reformation policy overriden by a strong desire not to spend any money on war. Tried to stay neutral until the war had grown to a point were Trier's relatively large size would no longer tip the balance one way or the other. Then tried just not to be noticed, unsucessfully.

Hesse and Wurttemburg

(400,000 pop. each) Protestant powers who did not wish to see counter reformation and neither Frederick or Ferdinand dominant. Both powers would have joined the war in 1623 if the Catholic League had lost a battle. William of Hesse and his wife Amelia were one of the most ardent fighters for the protestants once they did enter the war. Wurtemberg never seemed to have a clear policy and, like Trier, were too small once forced into the war to have much impact.

Had Trier, Hesse, and Wurtemberg understood Austrian and Bavarian intentions before the foreign powers had becomed involved, they could have tipped the scale toward the Protestant side and avoided the damages of the longer war. George Frederick of Baden Durlach did clearly see and cast his lot in 1622, but was too small to change the outcome, due to Tillys ' brilliant campaign in 1623.

Hanseatic League

This former 'power' of shipping and business were a collection of city states that wished to make money and avoid war. They would attempt to remain neutral. Their ports and ships made them valuable enough for many to cast a covetous eyes in the Hansards direction.

First Rank Foreign Powers

Spain

Looked on by all as the most powerful country in the world, its failing economy was being held together only by the silver and gold shipments of the New World. Militarily very powerful; mostly by virture of the best infantry in the world. That same infantry knew it, and mutinied (basically strikes) for better working conditions and regular pay. Over extended due to vast possesions spread out over the globe, Spain tried to hold everything.

This attempt bankrupted Spain, destroyed the Infantry (at Rocroi), and they still had to give up the Netherlands and Portugal. Spains' goals in the 17th century was to put down the Dutch revolt, stamp out heresy, and create a 'spanish road ' (or military safe road) from Italy to Flanders. However, the Dutch went on the back burner when the Italian or Iberian possessions were threatened. Viewed by all as working hand in glove with the Austrians in a plan of world domination, Spain and Austrias' interests did not always coincide, and any possible world domination that could have occured would have been a fortunate by-product of each county following its own self interest.

France

The France of the Thirty Years War is the France of Richeleu and the Three Musketeers, (the Grey Musketeers). Richeleu's goals were to take a country weakened by civil war and make her the great power she should be.

This required

1) make the king absolute by reducing the power of the ultra catholics (mostly dukes that further split into a Spanish or Italian faction).

2) neutralize the military and political power of the Hugenots (Protestants)

3) make sure no big winner emerged in Germany that could threaten France and stop France's eastward expansion, and finally,

4) Avoid Hapsburg encirclement and domination.

Richeleu and his sucessor Mazarin achieved these goals, but it was a near run thing.

Netherlands

The Dutch wished to gain freedom from Spain, although a faction wished the war, (and its profits), would go on forever. They also desired Flanders. the Dutch did not wish to get involved in the war in Germany because thier 'neutral' eastern frontier would then be compromised. Clandestinely assisted with volunteers and some money to help weaken Spain and to keep Spain away from, for them, the decisive Falnders battlefields.

Denmark

Denmark held the Baltic sounds, thereby receiving tolls on every ship that transited the Baltic. Christian the IV also had built up a strong war chest, concluded a sucessful war against Sweden, and was looking to expand his holdings in Northern Germany. His goals were to quiet his agressive noblity by becoming more powerful in the Baltic, gaining more ground in north Germany, and maybe even become Holy Roman Emperor. Not quite big enough to go it alone, Christian relied on English and Dutch subsidies. The money soon ran out, and eventually Christian was reduced to doing the Emperors bidding.

Sweden

A minor power trying not to get conquered by its former king, the King of Poland, or swallowed up by a sucessful HRE Emperor. Through the genius of Gustavus Sweden became a major power. Had the German Protestants backed him, they would have traded an Austrian Emperor for a de facto Swedish Emperor. He single handedly insured that Austria would not win. His death on the field of Lutzen insured that Sweden would not win. France had to directly enter the war after good, but not brilliant, Swedish generals lost at Nordlingen. What started out as a religious war affecting the dynasties of central Europe then became a struggle for mastery of Europe between Hapsburg Spain and Bourbon France.

Dogs in the Manger

Italian States, Lorraine, Savoy, Transylvania, Hungary

All of these powers tried to play off one side against the other to improve their position and /or survive as independent counties. Transylvania under Gabor did very well indeed. Hungary's nobility gained concessions and influence but were hampered by the 'turk at the door.'

Charles of Lorraine lost everything looking for support from Ferdinand and the ultra catholics in France. Savoy played both France and Spain well, but once Spain could no longer balance increasing French strength, France destroyed Savoyard pretensions. The Italian States, (and the Pope), all chafed at Spanish dominance and did what they could to reduce Spain's influence.

Military Entrepreneurs: Saxe Weimar brothers, Wallenstein, Mansfield, Christain of Brunswick.

All of these minor princes were trying to parlay their military contracts into a fiefdom. Wallenstien did accomplish the task and was killed by his former employeer, Ferdinand, for his troubles. Their goals, at times prolonged the war. They would keep an army in being after they had lost the original reason for its creation, hoping to force someone to buy them off with a duchy.

Peripheral Powers

The rest of Europe was involved in the war but had no major stake in the outcome. They might send support or threaten, but had no major affect except in the minds of the protagonists locked in a death struggle in Germany and Flanders. Their involvement can best be covered in the chronology, but I will outline some of their motivations.

England

James viewed himself a the great peacemaker and his assistance in the early war helped doom Bohemia and Palantine. English goals were to support the Palantine son in law, support Calvinists, avoid German entanglements, insure no one power controls the Baltic, (due to shipping materials needed), and to ally with either France or Spain. The English Civil War, and Charles death, provided the German princes a sobering reminder of the limits of absolutism.

Turkey

The Ottomans had their hands full with sucession trouble, wars with Poland, wars with Persia, and then a war with Venice. The Hapsburgs had to contend with the threat but this cut both ways as Transylvania made peace twice because of Turkish demands on Transylvania for support.

Poland

Did send help but involvement against Turkey and Russia kept Poland far from the German War. Swedens ' sucessful campaigns in Poland absorbed all Polish military efforts.

Russia

This period of Russian history is known as 'the time of troubles' and Russia was playing for survival against thier western neighbors. Did support Sweden form 1630 to 1635 with favorable trade agreements.

Conclusion

The pettiness of the German leaders combined with religous zeal caused Germany to suffer the ravanges of war unparalleled until the Twentieth Century. I hope that this short overview has proved helpful in sorting out the 'players ' and that even now you are seized with and urge to paint cuirassiers and pikemen. The Thirty Years War also provides a great backdrop for wild diplomacy in a campaign and the period has good tactical balance for combined arms action. The Great War, as it was then called, should be considered the actual First World War and is well worth playing for the scope and scale it offers.

More 30 Years War

Introduction
Background
Examination of the Leaders and Their Motivations
The Nations