Well-ordered battle formations are given for the Greek army as they go to battle. An invaluable verse describes the troops of Nestor - an experienced leader -being arrayed for the coming confrontation: "With this he left them and went onward to Nestor, the facile speaker of the Pylians, who was marshalling his men and urging them on, in company with Pelagon, Alastor, Chromius, Haemon, and Bias shepherd of his people. He placed his knights (Hippeis) with their chariots and horses in the front rank, while the foot soldiers, brave men and many, which he could trust, were in the rear. The cowards he drove into the middle, that they might fight whether they would or no. He gave his orders to the knights first, bidding them bold their horses well in hand, so as to avoid confusion. "Let no man," he said, "relying on his strength or horsemanship, get before the others and engage singly with the Trojans, nor yet let him lag behind or you will weaken your attack; but let each when he meets an enemy's chariot throw his spear from his own; this being much the best; this is how the men of old took towns and strongholds; in this wise were they minded." [Iliad IV -260]

Some historians have offered the idea that the Greeks fought in a looser formation for quick advances or retreats as an explanation of the to and fro nature of the battle. The equipment carried by the spear-armed infantry was highly unsuitable for fighting of this kind. Survivingart such as the Mycenaean Lion Dagger (See Fig. 1) and the murals at Knossos show very long spears and very heavy shields. In addition, texts such as the one above and this given now indicate a high level of discipline and order.

Homer agrees: "As when some mighty wave that thunders on the beach when the west wind has lashed it into fury - it has reared its head afar and now comes crashing down on the shore; it bows its arching crest high over the jagged rocks and spews its salt foam in all directions - even so did the serried phalanxes of the Danaans march steadfastly to battle. The chiefs gave orders each to his own people, but the men said never aword; no man would think it, for huge as the host was, it seemed as though there was not a tongue among them, so silent were they in their obedience; and as they marched the armor about their bodies glistened in the sun." [Iliad IV -423]

Battle groups were formed under the various warrior leaders who were quitecapable of bringing the men to their positions as the menwere accustomed to take them. It has been written in several secondary publications that The Iliad concerns itself with only the heroes fighting. In saying this, critics fail to understand the principles of narrative drive. Even today, people like to be shown the picture of battle and then concentrate on the adventures of some characters. Modem movies that convert books into screenplays uses this device constantly.

To say that the epic is simply about brawling Gods and heroes is totally misleading. Throughout the text runs a vivid and very detailed description of ARMIES in combat. In fact all the 'chrome' of heroes and Gods overlays a grim and realistic battle ably described: "Hypoleucos fled, but him too did Agamemnon smite; he cut off his hands and his head- which he sent rolling in among the crowd as though it were a ball. There be let them both lie, and wherever the ranks were thickest thither he flew, while the otherAchaeans followed."

"Foot soldiers drove the foot soldiers of the foe in rout before them, and slew them; horsemen did the like by horsemen, and the thundering tramp of the horses raised a cloud of dust from off the plain. King Agamemnonfollowed after, ever slaying them and cheering on the Achaeans. As when some mighty forest is all ablaze - the eddying gusts whirl fire in all directions till the thickets shrivel and are consumed before the blast of the flame- even so fell the beads of the flying Trojans before Agamemnon son of Atreus, and many a noble pair of steeds drew an empty chariot along the highways of war, for lack of drivers who were lying on the plain, more useful now to vultures than to their wives." [Iliad, Book X1 - 176]

Note the comment about "highways of war" mentioned in this extract. This can also be translated as "Corridors of Battle" This clearly indicates that formations were preserved with gaps between units through which chariots could retreat to be reformed later. There is no doubt the leaders were capable of forming and reforming their troops. "Then they rallied and again faced the AcbaeaDs, but the Argives stood compact and firm, and were not driven back. They closed their ranks and were by no means put to flight. As the breezes sport with the chaff upon some goodly threshing- floor, when men are winnowing- while yellow Ceres blows with the wind to sift the chaff from the grain, and the chaff- heaps grow whiter and whiter- even so did the Acbaeans whiten in the dust which the horses' hoofs raised to the firmament of heaven, as their drivers turned them back tobattle, and they bore down with might upon the foe." [Iliad Book V - 506]

As previously described when Nestor formed for battle, the infantry would be led forward by their heroes to the requiredplace in the battle. Both sides formed up in units, as is attested by many sections in the tale such as this: "But Hector marked them from across the ranks, and with a loud cry rushed towards them, followed by the strong battalions of the Trojans." [Iliad Book V - 588]

Even more convincing are the actions of the Trojans prior to their assault on the Greek camp: "This advice from Polydamas seemed excellent to Hector. He jumped down at once from his chariot in his full armor and all the other Trojans abandoned their chariots when they saw Prince Hector dismount. Leaping out they told their drivers to keep the horses drawn up in proper order by the trench. Ther they stood clear, sorted themselves out and fell in behind their captains in five companies. Thus they drew up, shield touching ox-hide shield and resolutely advanced on the Danaans. [Iliad XII - 110]

For their part the Greeks also face the Trojans in an undeniably close formation. "There stood the very pick o their best men awaiting Prince Hector and the Trojans, an impenetrable hedge of spears and sloping shields, buckler to buckler, helmet to helmet, man to man. So close were the ranks that when they moved their heads the glittering peaks of their helmets met and the spears overlapped as they swung them forward in their sturdy hands. [Iliad Book XIII, 142]

Here we have a description troops of a disciplined and close order establishment, who could be given orders that went against their normal instincts. "Meanwhile Nestor shouted to the Argives, saying, "My friends, Danaan warriors, servants of Mars, let no man lag that he may spoil the dead, and bring back much booty to the ships. Let us kill as many as we can; the bodies will lie upon the plain, and you can despoil them later at your leisure." [Iliad Book VI - 105]

The spear men were in turn supported by archers and slingers presumably skirmishing, with the exception of the 350 archers mentioned previously who fought in one formation like all the other Greek squadrons. Archers and s1iDgers are not mentioned often, but when a call is made for a single combat of champions prior to battle, these troops are alluded to.

"When Hector heard this he was glad, and went about among the Trojan ranks holding his spear by the middle to keep them back, and they all sat down at his bidding: but the Acbaeans still aimed at him with stones and arrows, 'til King Agamemnon shouted to them saying:

"Hold, Argives, shoot not, sons of the Achaeans; Hector desires to speak." They ceased taking aim and were still." [Iliad, Book III - 67]

There is no indication that the Greeks mixed archers with spear men. Possibly, this idea is taken from the Lion dagger of Mycenae - which is supposed to show such a formation being used for a Lion Hunt? (See Fig 1)

Fig. 1. Example of Mycenaen weapons and shields used in a lion hunt engraved on the central rib of a dagger. (British Museum)

A closer examination of the etching on the blade shows by position of feet and weapons that it is a line, not a column, of men who are under attack. Another likely origin of this theory is probably the following text:

"Locrian troops who bad no stomach for fighting, unprovided as they were with the usual arms, a plumed helmet of bronze, a rounded shield, and ashen spears. They believed in the bow and the sling of fine spun wool. It was with these weapons they had followed their chief to Ilium; and there were indeed occasions when a Trojan company was cut to pieces by their volleys. So now, while the heavy armed troops in e front engaged the Trojans and bronze clad s Hector, the Locrians kept shooting at them d from a safe distance to the rear, till the Trojans were thrown into confusion by the arrows and began to lose their relish for the fight." [Iliad Book XIII - 732]

There might seem some support for the idea of mixed arms units in the text if it is not considered in the light of the statements immediately proceeding this extract. Here we are told the leader of the Locrians had partnered with Aias son of Telamon as two Oxen in a yoke because: "There was a difference between them. The son of Telamon was backed by a strong and well trained body of retainers, who were always ready torelieve him of his shield when be was overcome by fatigue. Whereas the gallant son of Oileus was not accompaniedby his Locrian troops who had no stomach for fighting" [Iliad Book XIII -732]

This passage would indicate that the various squadrons that came to the war maintained their own formations, rather than mixing with other tribes. There is no evidence here that the units were mixed. There is only one mention of this method of fighting: "Ninth cameTeucerwitb his bow, and took his place under cover of the shield of Ajax, son of Telamon. When Ajax lifted his shield Teucer would peer round, and when he had bit any one in the throng, the man would fall dead; then Teucerwould hie back to Ajax as a child to its mother, and againduck down under his shield. [Iliad, Book Vill - 260]

In this case it appears the two heroes are working together. This is very rare on the Greek side as using a bow in battlewas considered unmanly: "Contemptible creatures," be exclaimed, "brave only with the bow" [Iliad IV - 260] That is not to say that Greek nobility could not use a bow, only that doing so in battle was frowned upon.

Another thing we learn from the archer text is the pattern of the close order soldiers' equipment. This is an ashen spear, bronze or bronze tipped belmet and shields that vary in type and size. From the archaeological evidence available, these shields reached from Deck to ankle in figure of 8 shape, or were shaped as long rectangularwitb rounded tops. These shields are referred today as "great or tower shields." (See Fig. 1) There were also large circular shields the size of hoplons and smaller ones much like peltas.

"Round this the Trojans and Acbaeans backed at the bucklers (peltas) about one's breasts, hewing each other's great shields and light bide-covered targets." [Iliad Book V - 451] This is confirmed by other extracts: "Over the breastwork, they hacked at each other's shields - the great bucklers or the light targets they held across their chests" [Iliad Book XII, 410]. It is obvious that these infantry are about to develop into the classical Greek type made famous in the Persian Wars. (See reconstruction)

More Homer's Greeks in Battle

Foreword, Sources, and Narrative
The Infantry
The Chariots
The Equipment
Reconstructing the Battle Tactics
Wargaming with Homer's Greeks