The Sokoto Caliphate was constantly at war in a process of conquest and consolidation. Most of the warfare was conducted during the dry season of October to April. Almost every year, each emirate was either defending against an enemy invasion or initiating their own campaign or slave raid. The Caliph Muhammadu Bello (1817-37) conducted forty-seven major campaigns during his reign. The ideology of the Islamic jihad, the need for capturing slaves, horses and other booty, and the presence of hostile neighbors were motives for military activity. The importance of cavalry, and later firearms, made the importation of these a high priority. Due to insufficient domestic breeding, the high mortality rate of horses in the Sudan and the attrition of warfare, there was a prodigious demand for horses. The main source of horses was through trade with the lands to the north. The Caliphate's main item for trade was slaves. A horse cost nine to fourteen slaves, and the expense of outfitting a heavy cavalryman was 5 slaves. One slave could be traded for six muskets. The demand for slaves for service in the emir's household and army, and their value in trade, made slave raiding a frequent activity. In the latter half of the 19th Century, there was a trend towards a more professional standing army. The raising of units of slave cavalry and gunmen were part of this. Also, volunteerism was replaced by conscription. The garrisons of certain frontier cities which served as staging points for campaigns, gradually evolved into permanent standing armies. Finally, the threat of British imperialism made improvement of military efficiency vital. But they could not obtain sufficient firearms to successfully face the modern firepower of the British forces. Armies of the Sokoto Caliphate The Yucatan Indian Uprising 1847-1855 Introduction and Army Organization Cavalry Infantry and Artillery Officers and Fortifications The Warfare State The British Invasions 1897-1903 Wargaming Back to Table of Contents -- Savage and Soldier Vol. XXIII No. 3 Back to Savage and Soldier List of Issues Back to MagWeb Magazine List © Copyright 1992 by Milton Soong. This article appears in MagWeb.com (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other articles from military history and related magazines are available at http://www.magweb.com