Infantry The foot soldiers were the most numerous part of the army and were formed into specialized units of archers, spearmen and swordsmen. Whereas the cavalry were recruited from the ruling class and its privileged dependents, the foot soldiers were composed of social elements drawn from the subject population: free Muslim peasant volunteers (talakawa); protected subject pagans (dhimmis); foreign mercenaries; and slaves (bawa). These troops were trained by the senior military commanders of the emirs and their hakimi. The infantry officers (sati) were either free clients or slave captains, and sometimes were mounted. The pagan detachments and units of slave captives were organized according to their tribal origin and commanded by their own leaders. The infantry were formed into units of fifty men commanded by a captain. Most of the foot soldiers were light infantry wearing only a loin cloth (mostly pagans) or a gown (taguwa), sandals, and turban (fulani and Muslim) or small fez like cap (Hausa). They carried a knife attached either to the left forearm or to a cord about the waist. A length of rope to bind captives was common among footmen. Finally, devout Muslim warriors wore one or more amulets to protect them from harm. Archers Bowmen (baka or masu baka) composed the largest portion of the army. They carried five foot recurve bows (baka) with a pull of up to forty-five pounds. Up to two dozen arrows (kibiya) were carried in quivers (kwari) made leather or wood. The two foot arrowshafts (kyarmo) were cut from reeds. They were unfleched, tipped with iron heads that were made in a variety of shapes and averaged six to seven inches in length. Almost all the arrows were poisoned. Two different kinds of arrow poison were utilized- vegetable and animal. The Strophanthus plant was the main source of vegetable poison. Frequently, arrows were coated with vegetable poison, allowed to dry, and them smeared with a toxic animal or insect fluid. Either poison alone was probably sufficient to cause a wound to be fatal. However, antidotes were generally known and were fairly effective when applied. Both poisons and their antidotes were prepared by ritual specialists, whether a single family within a village or a single group within an emirate. Often the poison specialists were pagans. for Muslims, Although the use of poisoned arrows was illegal military necessity and cultural tradition sanctioned this practice in the Sudan. Moreover, the fact that these poisons were prepared by pagans may have been considered to mitigate the nature of the transgression. The primary function of the archers was to disorganize the cavalry of the enemy. Because of the armor protection of the heavy cavalry, and large shields of many light cavalrymen, a normal killing shot was extremely difficult. The potency of the arrow poison was more important than its accuracy or penetrating power. Since the horseman presented a sizeable target, all that was needed was a hit on either horse or rider to destroy them as a fighting unit. Such tactics are described in the following account by a veteran Kebbi horseman of the 19th Century wars: A staunch bowman who was being attacked by a horseman would stand his ground until his adversary came into range. He would then make a feint, as if he were shooting, in the hope that the horseman would throw up his shield to protect himself. If the horseman did this, the bowman could often get in a telling shot underneath the shield. The arrows were usually poisoned, and as the poison acted very quickly, the bowman did not have to hit a vital spot, but could aim at any part of the horse or rider. Some archers were equipped with small shields and swords, but most had no shields or armor, so that they were free to utilize the cover of houses, trees, or thickets to the best advantage. On the other hand, there were sometimes small units of heavy archers, equipped with a large shield and in some emirates they wore a suit of quilted armor. In addition to their bow, they also carried a sword and two or three spears. These heavy archers appear to have been used to provide fire support in the defense or attack of critical positions, such as a gateway in a city wall. the arrows were expended. The sword and spears were used after or when the fighting became close combat shield. Also, the spears may have been used to prop up the so that the archer could fire from its cover. Melee Infantry In addition to bowmen, the emir's army also included smaller divisions of spearmen and swordsmen. Like the archers, there were both lightand heavy troops. The light spearmen carried two or three javelins, a shield, sword, and perhaps a short thrusting spear. In some areas the javelins were poisoned and barbed, and the heads were sheathed when not in use, to protect from the elements. There was considerable local variation in the spearheads, which in some regions were multi-pronged. The sword scabbards were suspended under the arm by a shoulder strap. Like the cavalry, both rectangular and round shields were used. The most common type of sword, used by cavalry and infantry alike, was the broadbladed two-edged straight fate-fate. Other swords were modifications of the straight pattern or of the curved saber type. The heavy spearmen did not carry javelins, but rather a long heavy metal lance (asigiri). a large shield, a sword, and quilted armor.The main function of the heavy foot units was to provide shock power for smashing enemy ranks, and to give strength to their own battle lines. The metal shafted spears were well suited to withstanding charging cavalry, like the famed Swiss pikemen of the sixteenth Century, these pikemen offered a dense mass of sturdy spears and the threat of impalement to charging cavalry. Also the heavy spearmen were used in the assault and defense of city gates. Musketeers Gunmen (Yam bindiga) were rare during the first half of the 19th Century, but after 1860 they became more important, as the emirs gained access to firearms from European traders. However, due to the inland position and encirclement by many hostile peoples, the number of firearms obtained was limited. Most emirates only had less than one thousand muskets and modern rifles were very scarce. Although few in number, firearms were an important weapon. A musket could penetrate the armor of the lifida and the noise of the discharge often frightened the enemy horses. Musketeers were assigned to the vanguard of the army, where they and the archers would attempt to soften up and disorganize the enemy. Because of the relative small number of muskets, the musket was not necessarily decisive in open field battles, but was very significant in defense of cities. On several occasions one or two musketeers defending a gateway were able to drive off attackers by bringing down the leading lifida. The gunmen were organized into compact linear formations to ensure maximum effectiveness of their volleys and security for themselves. If there were a sufficient number of musketeers, they were formed in several ranks, firing and reloading by ranks. Reportedly, the reloading time was one to three minutes, leaving them vulnerable while reloading. Therefore, they were closely supported by archers and cavalry. The importation of firearms was controlled by the emirs, who sought to use their power for greater political control. Muskets were always issued only to the emir's slaves and servants, under command of slave officers. They were stationed near the palace as a ready reserve against either internal or external threats. They were employed to intimidate disaffected officials and political rivals, to collect overdue taxes, and to terrorize the subject population. In some emirates the slave gunmen were mounted, to give them more mobility in carrying out these duties. On the battlefield they apparently served as mounted infantry, riding to a critical position and dismounting to fire. During the last decade of the 19th Century, the Caliphate received reinforcements of trained gunmen in the form of refugees from European conquests. In 1890, the Tukulor Empire was defeated by the French, and Sultan Ahmadu emigrated to Sokoto with an army of 10,000, including 500 riflemen. (For more on the Tukulor see M. Crowder's book or S&S Vol. XVNo. 4) To these forces were added the armed warriors of the Wolof chieftain Ali Bori, who also fled to Sokoto and augmented the Caliph's forces. Katagum was reinforced by many Kanuri refugees from Rabeh's ravages in Bomu. Ironically, in 1900, trained gunmen from the shattered army of Rabeh fled to Adamawa, Katagum and Kano. Another form of foreign support came in 1892, when the French Lieutenant Louis Mizon was received by Emir Muhammadu Nya of Muri. Mizon distributed rifles among the emir's officials, and placed his own riflemen and two field pieces at Muhammadu's disposal. With this assistance, the pagan town of Kona was reduced, ending a six year war. Artillery Some of the emirates came to possess muzzle-loading smoothbore cannons of various types. For example, Nupe's arsenal included ten cannon and some rockets. Adamawa received two nine-pounder cannon from Lt. Mizon as a sign of French goodwill. It is reported that Emir Zubeiru occasionally took these fieldpieces on campaign, carrying them on camels, but apparently never fired them with effect. They were used somewhat more effectively against the British. On the other hand, Ilorin brought an old cannon into action against the British, but it performed pathetically, propelling its projectile "along the ground like a rabbit". Thus, artillery was not an important weapon in the Caliphate. There seems to be a pattern of ill use of artillery by Sudanic armies. Even the Dervish army seldom brought its modern field pieces into action in a field battle. Armies of the Sokoto Caliphate The Yucatan Indian Uprising 1847-1855 Introduction and Army Organization Cavalry Infantry and Artillery Officers and Fortifications The Warfare State The British Invasions 1897-1903 Wargaming Back to Table of Contents -- Savage and Soldier Vol. XXIII No. 3 Back to Savage and Soldier List of Issues Back to MagWeb Magazine List © Copyright 1992 by Milton Soong. This article appears in MagWeb.com (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other articles from military history and related magazines are available at http://www.magweb.com