Perhaps no other campaign in history has received so little attention and yet contributed so much to our history. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt opened the door for the Europeans to build the first major canal and opened the ancient world to study. This short article barely scratches the surface of the campaign or its rich potential for wargaming. When Napoleon Bonaparte made his ill-fated invasion of Egypt he dragged the Middle East into the modem age and started a process that continues to this day. Egypt had a long history that stretched back thousands of years, yet very few Egyptians had knowledge of that past. Since the last of the Great Caliphs had died (400 years before the Napoleonic period), the Islamic world had been in steady decline in relationship to the European states. The Ottoman Turks were only the last of a series of foreign conquerers who had overrun Egypt. The Egyptian decline had pre-dated Alexander the Great. When Napoleon's troops arrived from Malta, the Egyptians had been the vassals of foreign powers for more than 2000 years. This is not to say that the average Egyptian gave this fact all too much thought. The fellahin were consumed with daily survival; they would not awaken to the French Revolutionary concept of nationalism for another 80 years. The rulers of Egypt were the Mamelukes, who existed in a near feudal system of political relationships. The Mamelukes were fierce and proud defenders of Islamic culture in Egypt. Their fathers had been members of the first sernitic wave spreading Islam in the initial Jihad. The Ottomans used the Mamelukes to control the more docile Hamite population along the Nile. As the early Pharaohs knew, the Nile was Egypt. In return for their nominal loyalty to the Sultan, the Mamelukes ruled Egypt as they pleased. Their principal objective was the maintenance of the status quo. Thirty years before Napoleon's invasion, Ali Bey led a portion of the Mamelukes in rebellion against the rule of the Porte. In true Ottoman tradition, one of Ali's own generals, Abu'l Dhahab, was bribed to overthrow Ali Bey. Despite Russian support Ali was dead by 1773. A second rebellion was quelled by Turkish arms in 1785-86. Egypt was ruled by the Mamelukes but under the eyes of the Ottomans. The Ottoman Empire was clearly the "sickman" of Europe to those who could see beneath its veneer of power. The Ottoman maintained his power through a combination of diminishing force and reputation. As late as the 1680s Ottoman armies stood at the gates of Vienna, a mere 100 years before Napoleon's adventure started. Europeans were still somewhat impressed by the potential of Ottoman strength. That strength was continually sapped by the corrupt political system within the Empire. The Sultans, for all their personal power, were caged animals kept by the Grand Viziers (Visier Azem) who ruled in the Sultan's name. The Grand Viziers ruled the Empire through the Pashas or governors. The most important Pashas were located in Buda, Cairo, and Baghdad. The Pashas' power was further passed through the Beys. The Beys were virtually autonomous feudal lords who owed the Sultan military service as well as taxes. By 1798, the control of the various parts of the Empire was slipping from the Sultan's (Grand Vizier's) hands. The Ottoman had not so much declined as failed to keep pace with political and military developments in Europe. After all, the power structure was determined to maintain the status quo and change and centralization, if attempted at all, met with indifference and resistance. The Ottoman as well as the entire Moslem world lived in the past as if it was the present. There was one major exception to this attitude and that had been traditionally found in the professional Ottoman military. Once the cutting edge of miliary art, even the Janissary Corps had declined in relationship to the European armies. The Grand Vizier was himself a Janissary and the corps gradually evolved form an organization designed to serve the state to becoming the state. The Janissary were "recruited" from the European Christian populations of the Empire. Taken as children, they were converted to Islam and trained as soldiers. They formed the backbone of the Ottoman military power. The Janissary were organized into ortas. The corps was scattered throughout Turkey and Ottoman Europe in garrisons called oclas. These gardsons were commanded by Agasi. The Janissary force of the Ottoman Empire only faced the French in dribbles as they returned from the pilgrimage to Mecca through Egypt. Napoleon's Invasion Napoleon's invasion of Egypt had as its objective the destruction of the British Empire. In 1798 the Directory placed Napoleon in command of the French Army gathering in the channel ports for the invasion of England. Somehow Napoleon reasoned that the Royal Navy was too powerful to allow the French a twenty mile crossing to England but not powerful enough to prevent his 850 mile crossing to Egypt. Egypt was the cross roads of the world and it would make an excellent base to attack British India. The fact that it had been of little value to the Ottoman seemed to escape the great strategist. The amazing thing was not that Napoleon came up with the plan but that the Directory let him do it. On April 12th, 1798, the Directory created the Army of the Orient under Napoleon's command. Napoleon's organizational skills were more than adequate to quickly create a force of 40,000. He was able to depart 37 days later for Egypt. On June 12th, Napoleon, escorted by 13 ships of the line, seized Malta. And only July 2nd, Napoleon's troops stormed Alexandria and immediately advanced on Cairo. The Egyptians had been forewarned by the British but were caught off guard by the speed of French operations. The stage was set for the major battle of the initial campaign. The Mamelukes made an effort to defend Cairo. Numbering 60,000 plus under the Pasha Murad and Ibrahim Bey, the Egyptians formed up to defend the principal city of Egypt. The Mamelukes attacked in true feudal tradition and met the fire power and disciplined squares of the French army. Napoleon advanced his divisional squares and overran the Egyptians' fortified camps. The Mamelukes were scattered and their Egyptian army was destroyed. Napoleon's losses were insignificant. The French occupied Cairo and moved against the rest of Egypt sending forces south down the Nile Valley. However, those pesky shopkeepers (the English) caught and destroyed the French supporting fleet in the Battle of the Nile. See maps #1 and #2. Admiral Horatio Nelson with thirteen ships of the line destroyed the French supporting fleet. The French, under Admiral Brueys, were caught completely off guard. Nelson's ships cruised up and down the French line pounding the French ships. Only two escaped capture or destruction. Without the fleet, the French transports scattered. The Army of the Orient was now stranded in a hostile environment. Despite his success on land, Napoleon faced defeat. The Ottoman gathered another feudal army under "the Butcher", Achmed Pasha, in Syria. The British provided support for this force. Napoleon did not wait for the Ottoman to organize and struck into Syria to destroy them. Taking just 8,000 troops he marched across the Sinai and captured Jaffa and laid siege to Acre. Royal Navy Captain Sir Sidney Smith assumed command of the allied force at Acre. The British Navy continued to keep Napoleon from completely investing the city. Several French assaults failed to force the issue. In April 1799, the French counterattacked Achmed as he tried to relieve Acre. While General Kleber fought a desperate battle in the French center using hollow squares, Napoleon rolled into the rest of the Ottoman force and crushed it completely. The survivors fled across the Jordan River. The siege of Acre was finally broken by the Plague that swept through the French ranks. Napoleon departed having lost almost 2,200 men from disease and battle. His depleted force arrived in Cairo on 14 June 1799 - see map #3. The British attempted to take advantage of the French setback by transporting 18,000 Turks to Aboukir on the mouth of the Nile. Napoleon quickly reacted to this threat by mustering all his available troops in a direct assault of the two fortified Turkish lines surrounding Aboukir. The first Turkish line was quickly overcome but the second proved tougher. The first French assault failed. The French soldiers, sensing the desperation of the moment, surged forward once again. General Jean Lannes, acting as a common private, personally led the assault. Murat's meager cavalry contributed to the slaughter that followed Lannes' breach of the line. By August second, the citadel fell and with it British hopes of sealing off the French in the interior - see map #4. Napoleon Leaves Egypt Napoleon now made one of his most controversial decisions. Leaving Kleber in command he departed for France. He left his army to its fate. Perhaps ambition caused him to flee, perhaps fear; perhaps he truly intended to raise a relief force in France. We will never know his motives. In any case, having arrived in France in October, he was remaking a name for himself in Italy seven months later. Kleber was in a difficult position. He had less than 30,000 men and no line of communications with France. He attempted to negotiate a settlement with the Turks and the British. The Convention of El Arish would have allowed the French free passage from Egypt. The English Government refused to concede to it. Kleber then attacked and defeated the Turks at Heliopolis in March 1800. Kleber was an excellent officer and administrator. His excellence in command probably contributed to his assassination in June 1800. Command fell to General Jaques F. de Menou. Menou attempted to stabilize the Nile Valley and set in for a long siege. The French assumed the role of the Mamelukes and even incorporated some of them into their forces. Menou recruited locals to fill out the depleted ranks of the Army of the Orient. These recruits came mainly from the Coptic Christian community. Morale in the French Army remained high despite everything. The Army had yet to be defeated in the field and seemed able to maintain itself despite the lack of French logistical support. The British were not content to have a French Army, no matter how isolated, sitting in Egypt. In March 1801, a combined British and Turkish army again assaulted Aboukir. Sir Ralph Abercromby coordinated a successful amphibious assault that stripped the French of their limited access to the sea. Once again the French responded but this time Abercromby's force outfought the French which he outnumbered 2.5 to 1. In the next 75 days the French were gradually corralled and on August 31st, 1801, Menou negotiated the return of the remnant of his force to France. The British guaranteed the safe passage of the remaining 26,000 French troops of the Army of the Orient. They returned to France in September that same year. Napoleon achieved very little by the diversion in Egypt. Success was beyond the capability of France. The operation was doomed by the Royal Navy from the start. The fact the French kept an army in the field for almost three years with no logistics support speaks highly of the quality of French leadership and of the individual soldiers. It also speaks volumes of the quality of Ottoman forces. What kinds of wargames can be drawn from this excursion on the Nile? There are several set piece battles that would make interesting tabletop encounters. There are also several campaign options and numerous skirmish battle possibilities. One could also play the French capture or British capture of Malta. The Battle of the Nile was always an interesting scenario as would be the escape of Napoleon from Egypt to France. There are numerous actions in the Nile Delta, off the coast of Acre and resupply operations that would also make great scenarios. I will try to give you some for each of the above. Napoleon in Egypt Historical Background Rules Consideration A Skirmish Scenario A Naval Scenario Available Wargaming Figures Back to Table of Contents -- Courier Vol. IX No. 5 Back to Courier List of Issues Back to Master Magazine List © Copyright 1990 by The Courier Publishing Company. This article appears in MagWeb.com (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other articles from military history and related magazines are available at http://www.magweb.com