Conclusion

The Third Crusade would continue for eight months, but these were months of negotiations; Saladin had no intention of offering Richard an open battle, if it could possibly be avoided; Richard himself was beset with the difficulties of a slowly disintegrating army due to internal quarrels dealing with the reconstruction of the Latin states, and the declining morale due to the lack of decisive action in respect to Jerusalem.

Thus, neither side had achieved its full goals. Saladin had saved Jerusalem for Islam, but at the price of passage for Christian pilgrims (a clause of the treaty of September, 1192); also, although he had come so close, he had failed to eliminate the Latin presence in the Near East. As for the Christians, if they had saved several strongholds and cities, they had been unable to retake their main objective Jerusalem.

Battle of Jaffa

One isolated battle remains to be discussed before closing, that of Jaffa in August of 1192.

While Richard was at Acre late in the previous month with the main Crusader army, Saladin determined to move west in a lighting strike to descend on the lightly-defended coast city of Jaffa. He enjoyed immediate success, quickly forcing the small garrison back to the city's citadel. However, Richard arrived with sea-borne reinforcements not a moment too soon to prevent the garrision's surrender. Vastly outnumbered, but enjoying the advantage of complete surprise, he was able to drive back the Muslim forces from the city.

However, once Saladin had learned how inferior in number the Christian forces were, he determined to launch another surprise attack the following morning against the Christian camp. The English King was warned in time of the impending approach, however, and he accordingly made the following dispositions with the troops he had available.

As the vast majority of his force was infantry (about 2,000 out of 2,054 seems to be an accurate ratio, if not number), he set them up, in line formation, in a kneeling position, with their spears set so that their points would he at the height of a horse's breast. Behind the spearmen were placed the crossbowmen, and behind them were placed another line of crossbowmen, whose duty it was not to fire, but to load one weapon while his partner in the front line fired the other. In the rear of the infantry line stood Richard and a handful of mounted knights.

The Turkish horse, several thousand in number, were unable to dent this line; wave after wave of the Muslim cavalry hurled itself against the Christians, but the spearmen held firm and the rain of deadly crossbow bolts exacted a heavy toll.

Finally, when the Muslim cavalry seemed to be tiring, Richard ordered his crossbowmen up through the spearmen line to discharrie all their bolts; the consequent volley disrupted the eneffy, and King Richard ordered his bowmen back, into line. No sooner had this been accomplished than he moved to the front of his snearmen and led them in an attack on the still- disordered Muslim ranks, and then back again.

By evening, Saladin had had enough, and retreated with his army south-east to Jerusalem. The last battle of the Third Crusade was over.

Bibliography

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Crusade of Richard I: 1189-92 ed. T.A. Archer. English history by Contemporary Writers. London, 1912.
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Hollister, Warren C. Medieval Europe: A Short History 1968.
Lamb, Harold. The Crusades: the Flame of Islam, New York, 1931.
Lane-Poole, Stanley. Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. New York, 1898.
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Meyrick, Samuel Rush. A Critical Inquiry Into Ancient Armour London. no date.
Oldenbourg, Zoe. The Crusades trans. Anne Carter. New York, 1966.
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Ruciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades. II. Cambridge 1954.
Smail, RC. Crusading Warfare 1097-1193 Cambridge 1967.
Warner, Philip. Sieges of the Middle Ages. London, 1968.

A Military History of the Third Crusade

Introduction
Jihad
Battle of Arsouf 1191
Conclusion and Bibliography
The Crusader Army
The Muslim Army
Ordnance of Siege Warfare
Crusader Kings