APACHE

In depth material on all of the various Apache bands can be found in the articles on the Native Nations of the Southwest. Some comments on specific Apache tribes, which influenced the Texas region are included here.

ATAKAPANS

Located in the Texas-Louisiana border areas. Villages were located from the Sabine river to the Trinity river. They were related to the Tunica and Chitimachas tribes of Louisiana and Mississippi. The main tribes were the AKOKISA located on Galvaston Bay; PATIRIS located in the San Jacinto river valley, northeast of Houston and the BIDAIS who were located near the Trinity river, east of Austin. The coastal Akokisa were noted for fishing with javelins and darts which may have also been used in combat. Their main weapons were the bow and a long spear. The inland tribes were known to fight over hunting grounds with the Tonkawa and initially the Lipan Apaches.

By 1770 the Bidais and the Lipan Apaches were allies. The Bidais became strongly anti-Spanish after their Lipan alliance. The highest estimated warrior number was 900 in about 1700. By 1800 the Atakapan tribes were no longer a serious threat to anyone. Most tribes were extinct, migrated or merged with stronger neighbors.

CADDO CONFEDERACY

Often considered the most culturally advanced of the Texas nations. Most tribes were located north of the Atakapan lands. Many villages were centered in the Tyler area which settlements scattered along the branches and source areas of the Sabine and Neuches rivers. The Kadohadcho, the northernmost group had villages along the southern bank of the Red River. They were a Mound Builder culture whose settlement defenses consisted of palisades. Caddo tribes rarely attacked each other. Some larger tribes included the Waco, Tawakoni, Kichai, among others.

The warrior’s appearance was very similar to the tribes of Northeast American Woodlands. A common hairstyle was the roached ‘Mohawk’ but they also wore their hair short with a center topknot, which often reached knee length. They had an unusual hide tanning method that actually dyed the hides black. Their favorite color of warpaint was vermilion. They were known to eat enemy bodies and captives in elaborate ceremonies. Their constant enemies were the Osage, Wichita, Comanche and Apache. They fought several battles with war parties from the east (Cherokee, Chickasaw and Choctaw, etc) before and after the 1830 migration from the east. They also fought several skirmishes with the DeSoto expedition.

CHEYENNE and ARAPAHO

These were Alogonquin speaking tribes who initiallly fought each other. They merged with a peace treaty prior to the Great Split of their Nations, so are treated as one group in this article. They spilt into Southern and Northern divisions sometime between 1800 and 1820. The northern division with additional data is covered in the Northern Plains article. In general the Cheyenne did not become a horse culture until after 1750. Prior to that they lived in semi-permanent villages along rivers and raised crops. After obtaining numerous horses, they adapted to a more nomadic horse-buffalo culture.

Following the bison migrations brought them into conflict with tribes to the south which included the Comanche, Kiowa, Pawnee, Utes, and Wichita. After years of conflict the Cheyenne Arapaho coalition reached a peace settlement in 1840 with the Comanche-Kiowa coalition. Later this mutual peace was extended to include the Wichita. The Utes and Shoshone of Colorado and Wyoming and the Pawnees in Kansas became their primary enemies after 1840. Warrior societies dominated the Cheyenne culture. Each warrior joined a specific society that had its own distinctive styles of dress and/or identifying marks. Small raiding parties often included only members of the same society. A society was responsible for revenging the loss of a member but other societies were allowed to join in if they expected to encounter a large enemy force. Some of the more notable societies were the ‘Bow Strings’ and the Dog Men (AKA Dog Soldiers). Their primary weapons were lances and bows with guns being more common after the American Civil War.

COAHUILTECANS

Located in South Texas from Galvaston Bay to the Rio Grande. Their influence reached the San Antonio area where they conflicted with the neighboring Tonkawas. It was scattered over the harsh terrain with 200 bands loosely associated with four or five confederated groupings. These groups included the Payayas, Aranamas, Tamiques, Orejons, Pachal, Kesale-Terkodams and the Katuhanos of Mexico that raided across the Rio Grande. They and the KARANKAWAS speak a Hokan language and may have migrated from California. The Hokan culture may have dominated the entire southwestern region until the migration waves of Athapaskan tribes split them into two distinct groups. The Yguales tribe was often recorded as being excellent archers. In the 1700s saw the nation being decimated by the age-old Apache enemy, the new Comanche enemy and the unseen diseases brought by Europeans.

As a result by the 1800s most Coahuiltecqans had assimilated into the Mexican culture. Warriors wore into battle only a knee length breechcloth or in winter a coyote hide robe. Heavy tattooing by the scarcely dressed warriors was used to distinguish members of the various bands. Summer campaigns against other Coahuiltecqans over hunting grounds were common were not very bloody. However the bloody Apache raids and virtual extermination attacks of the Comanche quickly depleted the strength of the widely scattered bands. Camps were often built in heavy thickets, surrounded by a ditch with brush used as a barrier. Warriors often used the ditch as a protective position from which to defend the camp. The main weapon was a simple bow shooting a 20-inch arrow.

COMANCHE

Originally a nation located in the high plateau areas of the Rocky Mountains. They spoke a Shoshonean dialect. During the 1600s, they began to migrate along the Arkansas River, first into eastern Colorado and then western Kansas. By 1700 they were established as one of the better ‘Plains culture’ nations and embarked on the conquest of the Southern Plains region. From 1750 into the mid-1800s, they were considered the dominant native nation power in the Southern Plains and Texas region. They raided east into the fertile Caddo area of east Texas, west into New Mexico and south into Mexico. The nation consisted of twelve bands rather than tribes as members could shift among the various factions. The largest group were the ‘Yap Eaters’. The Penatekas were the southernmost band that initiated most contact in Texas and were the targets of most retalitory attacks. The ‘Buffalo Eaters’ were regarded as the most warlike band. Other bands included the ‘Wanderers’, Quahadi, Tanimas and the Tanawas.

Comanche warriors preferred red as a warpaint. Often painting the entire face red and then adding other colors such as black, yellow, green and blue (in order of preference, I think). They would also paint their entire lance red. They wore hide clothing but during the mid-1800s many began to wear clothing which they traded for or took from captives. A preferred color among the warriors seems to have been blue or scarlet.

Most warriors wore knee high hide riding boots rather than moccasins. One source mentioned that the riding boots were usually colored light Blue (!!) after cloth clothing were adopted. While the buffalo head/horn, which offered some protection from melee weapon blows was a favorite, other styles included deer head/antlers, a white crane and various war trophies such as military hats and even tophats. The feathered headdress became popular after 1865 with the buffalo horn style being worn by high-ranking warriors. Comanches generally wore their hair long and braided on the sides.

Comanche battle tactics varied with terrain. Some of these are the basis for most 1950s movies made about the Western conflict. In the open plains, the Comanche formed in a battle wedge. If the enemy was in a stationary position, the wedge spread out to encircle the target. The warriors in the circle moved continuously often shrinking the circle as they rode. The object was to force other tribes to run out of arrows by firing at a fast moving and long distance target. If the enemy were Europeans with muskets, they initially counted muskets, then charged at a point where they felt that a majority of the enemy was reloading. Once rapid-fire rifles were introduced, this tactic was no longer effective.

If the target was too large to encircle, the warriors still rode in a circle with the closest warrior firing then reloading as he was moving out of range. If charged by another mounted force, the warriors would avoid impact contact, scatter, and reform on the flanks and fire at a now encircled enemy.

For attacks in rough terrain, the warriors rode double with one group distracting the enemy while the others dropped of riders unnoticed. Once deployment was complete, an attack on the enemy from every direction was initiated. While ambushes were used in rough terrain, the ambush by small groups became the tactic of choice after 1865 when American firepower became dominant.

Weapons included a 3’ bow, 10’-14’ lance, ‘battle-axe’ and a bison-hide shield. The ‘battleaxe’ started out as a club but evolved into an angled stick with metal blades (more than likely knife blades obtained through trade) protruding from it. In most cases warriors replaced it with a trade tomahawk in the 1800s.

The Utes were a traditional enemy of the Comanche with wars being fought even prior to the Comanche foot migration north during the 1600s. While living on the northern plains, the Comanches fought with the Cheyenne, Arapahos and various Dakota tribes. The Dakota pressure in particular convinced the Comanche tribes to begin a migration to the south. This new movement resulted in more raids with the Cheyenne and Arapaho but also created conflict with the Kiowa, Pawnee, Wichita, Osage, Sauk-Fox and Plains Apache who had expanded north of the Arkansas River. The wars with the Apaches became so intense that eventually they replaced the Utes as the traditional enemy of the Comanche.

The Comanches often raided Osage and Pawnee villages during the period between May to August as they followed the bison migration north. Osage and Pawnee raids on Comanche camps tended to occur between November and January as they followed the bison migration south. Once the Comanches entered Texas, they also fought smaller Caddo and Tonkawan tribes as well as a continued war with the Apaches. Other tribes which were also the target of Comanche raids were the Wacos, Kickapoo, Kansa, Navaho, Crow, Pueblo, Arikara, Seminole, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Cherokee and Creek.

The Spanish, Mexicans, Texans and Americans all fought the Comanches to varying degrees. As the Comanche became more involved in the Texas region, they reached various peace agreements with some of their old northern enemies including the Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, Arapahoes and Cheyenne.

EASTERN NATIVE IMMIGRANTS

Even before various treaties with the Americans forced whole native Nations to migrate to the promised land west of the Mississippi, various eastern tribes, especially from the southeast, conducted hunting expeditions and raids deep into the Plains region. Chickasaw and Choctaw warriors frequently raided into Texas and Oklahoma. Dissident Cherokees settled in Arkansas during the 1770s and still more arrived in the 1790s.

The southeastern pressure increased after 1830 with the forced migration of Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cherokee and Seminole tribes by the Americans. Still more immigrants arrived in the Arkansas and Oklahoma area from various northeastern tribes including the Delawares, Potowamie, Shawnees, Fox, Sauk, among others. These groups arrived in the Plains with numerous muskets and many with experience in American tactics. Both advantages were used to repulse the assaults of the vastly more numerous but poorly equip Plains tribes. The Osage were among the first and most bitter tribes encountered but conflicts also occurred with Caddo tribes in Texas, Pawnee, Comanche and several other Plains tribes.

EURO-AMERICANS

While not a Native Nation, their relationship with the Plains Nations did influence the progress of events in the region. The Euro-Americans often treated all nations the same, especially in regards to retaliatory raids. The Native tribes understood the differences in among the Europeans and reacted as such. In fact just as there were divisions within many Native nations such as the Comanche where a treaty by one group did not bind the actions of another faction, the actions of one nationality of Euro-Americans were not used to condemn all groups. Even the Spanish colonists in Texas, New Mexico and the Mexican provinces were all treated as different ‘tribes.’ The French , English and later the Americans were all properly recognized as separate people and not responsible for the actions of the other groups.

JUMANO

Considered having a Pueblo culture and speaking a Uto-Aztekean language. Related to the Pueblo tribes of New Mexico. In 1500 they were reported as having five main towns and several smaller scattered villages. They were constant enemies of the Apaches, mainly the Lipan Apaches, until 1715. After 1715, they were considered a close ally of the Lipan if not actually merged with them. Their main weapons included a weak bow, club and hide shield.

KARANKAWAS

Related to the Coahuiltecans, they spoke a Hokan language. Their tribes were located mainly along the Gulf Coast in five independent groups. Capoques (aka Coco and Coaque) and Hans located along the Galvaston to the Brazos river; Kohanis located from the Brazos to the Colorado river; Kopanos (aka Copane, Cobanes) located in the Copano Bay area; and the Korenkake, Clamcoets and Carancaguacas of the Matagorda Bay area. Warriors painted their faces half red and half black and wore only a long breechcloth into battle. Their weapons included the long spear, javelins, clubs maybe darts and later tomahawks. However their best weapon was the powerful six-foot longbow whose range was up to 200 yards. The arrows were of a three-foot cane.

KAW

(AKA KANSA or KANSAS) A Siouan Dhegiha tribe located in northeastern Kansas. They fought the Caddos in the 1600s, the Cheynnes in the early 1700s, then later the Osage and Pawnees.

KIOWA

A nomadic nation during the pre-horse era which spoke a Uto-Aztecan language. Their camps were divided into six major divisions. Indications are that they migrated from the Southern plains to Montana during the early 1600s and had migrated to the South Dakota region by 1700. During the 1700s, they were forced out of the Dakotas by the Dakotas and Cheyenne. By 1780 they had returned to the Texas area, settling in the Texas and Oklahoma panhandle areas. This migration resulted in a ten-year war with the Comanche. A 1790 peace treaty resulted in a close military alliance with the Comanche during the 1800s. Another group to which they were closely allied with an Apache tribe which became known as the Kiowa Apache. They also maintained an uneasy peace with the Cheyenne and Arapahoes as part of the Comanche peace of 1840.

They maintained a traditional ‘Plains’ warrior culture with warrior societies and attitudes toward warfare. (Counting coups, etc). Their main weapons were the bow and lance. One unique aspect of their warfare was the practice of surrounding their encampments with ditches and crude earthworks. An 1800 estimate was that they had 500 warriors. The titles of their warrior societies were the Herders, Horse Headdress, Black Legs/ feet, Skunkberry People (aka Crazy Horses) and a Crazy Dog faction. A warrior may have belonged to several different societies.

The Koisenko faction were warriors drawn from other societies to act as leaders and even suicidal fanatics. After returning to Texas, they raided throughout the area and into Mexico (even reportedly as far south as British Honduras).

Serious enemies included the Sioux and Cheyenne in the Dakotas and Colorado, the enemies of the Crow while in Montana, and Comanches during the southward migration. They also conducted raids against the Arapahoes, Osages, Mescalero Apaches, Utes, Caddos, Tonkawas, pawnee and other enemies of the Comanche.

KIOWA APACHE

A minor nation that was ethnic Apache but had adopted Plains culture and traveled with the Kiowas and later Comanches. Some estimates indicate as few as 100 warriors in 1800.

LIPAN APACHE

AKA Querechos, Faraones and Padoka/French. This Apache branch dominated the region between the Pecos River and San Antonio. They spoke the Athapaskan language and maintain much of the Apache culture. However, they also adopted some ‘Plains’ culture elements as well. They established semi-permanent settlements and conducted nomadic bison hunts as well. Tribes included the Paloma, Carlana and Cuartelejos and Jicarilla. The Jicarilla Apache branch eventually migrated west and settled among the Mescalero. Most warparties ranged from only eight to twelve men. Raids for horses and cattle were common with ambushes being a favorite tactic. Showing their mixed culture, the Lipan tended to ride their horse to the scene of the battle. There they dismounted and proceeded to conduct the actual battle on foot.

Weapons included the bow (4’), lance, club and later a trade tomahawk. Shields tended to be oval 2’ x 3’ and made of the hardest hide available. Recorded enemies included the Wichita, Comanche, Ute, Spanish, Mexicans, Americans and even occasionally the Mescalero Apache.

MESCALARO APACHE

Though not regarded by many researchers as a Texas ‘Indian’ nation, the maps clearly show that their area of influence included the El Paso region of west Texas and along the Pecos river. As Lipan lands blocked eastward access, they rarely raided the rest of Texas. I am not sure if they participated in actions with Lipan bands against Comanche and Withita lands but it would not be improbable.

Comanche raids did occur in Mescalaro lands and skirmishes between Comanche and Apache raiders occurred even in Mexico.

OSAGES

The largest Dhegihan Siouan language nation located mainly south of the Missiouri River in Missouri, eastern Kansas and eastern Oklahoma. Many villages were built along the Osage River. It had main factions called the Great Osage and the Little Osage. They tended to have shaved heads with a mohawk style tuft of hair. They were early owners of firearms since they became close allies of the French. Their enemies included the Caddo, Kiowa, Arapaho, Wichita and Comanche.

Following the bison’s southern migration, they would raid the camps of various Plains tribes. Some war parties traveled all the way to Colorado and northeastern New Mexico. They constantly raided Pawnee and Kiowa tribes. Another group of enemies included the eastern nations that had begun to migrate west in the late 1700s. These included the Choctaw, Cherokee, Creek, Delaware and other tribes. They decapitated enemy victims in addition to scalping them.

PAWNEES

The largest of the Caddo language groups. Their lands were centered in Nebraska. The were divided into four sub-groups known as Skidi/Wolf, Tapage, Kitkehahki and Grand/Chaui Pawnee. They are recorded as fighting only in a breechcloth and wearing yellow, blue and black combinations of bodypaint. They were bitter enemies of the Dakotas and Osage but also had conflicts with the Comanche, Kiowas, Kaw, Arapahos and Cheyenne. Many of the early Indian scouts in the U.S. Army in the west were Pawnee. They preferred to attack at night in small groups of six to fifteen men but planned war parties of 200-300 men were raised. The small groups of raiders would travel to the target on foot and steal horses for the return trip home.

QUAPAW

(AKA ARKANSEA) A Dhegihan Siouan language nation located along the Arkansas River in Arkansas. They became early allies of the French and may have encouraged the friendly relationship between the French and their Osage relatives. They absorbed the remnants of another French ally tribe the Illini. Despite the benefits of their French alliance, the relationship made them the target of Chickasaw and other anti-French tribes in the east.

TONKAWAS

Aka Toncahua, Tonquaay. Located in Central Texas in the area of Austin to Waco. Tribes included the Yojaune, Ervipiame and Mayevy (aka Meghey). By 1800 constant attacks by Apache and Comanche raiders combined with losses from European diseases had reduced the tribes to a point that they merged into one tribes for protection. They also allied with the Spanish and Mexicans against the Comanches but the Mexican support was limited and ineffective. Later they would provide numerous scouts for the Texas Rangers. Their main weapons were a weak bow and lance. Despite the weak manufacture of the bow, they were regarded as expert archers. They used bison hides to make shields, unique jacket armor and helmets. Leaders would wear a feather or animal horn headdress. Their favorite paint colors were in order red, yellow, green and black. They are noted in a few battles for wearing crimson and black face paint.

WICHITAS

Originally located in eastern Texas as part of the Caddo culture until they and the Pawnee migrated north. The Pawnee migrated further northeast while the Wichita moved into northern Oklahoma and Kansas. About the mid-1600s they migrated back into Texas and settled mainly in the area between Fort Worth and Waco. Because of their association with the Pawnee, the French referred to them as the Black Pawnee or the Tattooed Pawnee. They are also believed to be the QUIVIRANS encountered by various Spanish expeditions in the 1500s.

As with other nations which had migrated from Texas, they began to return south after the introduction of the horse in order to be closer to the Spanish horse supply. The Waco tribe (aka Iscane) settled along the Brazos River near Waco. Other tribes, which formed part of the nation, were the Tawakonis and Kichai. Like most ‘Plains culture’ nations, their warriors used the bow and lance. They were only periodically nomadic and established fortified towns at several key locations. They surrounded these key settlements with stockades and moats. A tactic learned from French traders.

Their main enemies in the 1600s were the Osages who attacked from the east and the Comanche who attacked from the west. The Osages in particular were dangerous because they had received guns from the French. Once they entered Texas, they also fought the Lipan Apache and the Tonkawas over control of the new land.

The Wichita and other Caddo tribes wore a bison hide cap with a colored horse-hair plume attached to the top. The Wichita made bison leather breastplates for their horses.