Following the elimination of Achaeus and the completion of his second grand eastern expedition, Antiochus III had completed the re-conquest of the empire of his forefathers. He now again turned his attention outward, aiming to force another reckoning with the Ptolemaic grip on Coele Syria. After defeat in his two previous attempts, including the disaster of Raphia, he felt the third time might indeed be the charm.

But it was more than just a desire to revenge his only major setbacks that drove Antiochus III. The strategic position of Coele Syria, abutting the heartland of the empire, placed a hostile foreign power a mere stone's throw from his capital and the seat of his power.

The Ptolemaic empire, under Ptolemy Philopater, was primarily a maritime one. They held a firm grip on the coastal strip of Coele Syria, including Phoenicia, Tyre and Sidon, and also over the island of Cyprus. Held and allied cities dotted the coast of Asia Minor, and stretched up into the Agean, Hellespont and the Thracian coast as well.

In 205BC, Ptolemy Philopater died, leaving a child of four years, Ptolemy V Epiphanes on the throne. Antiochus III saw his chance. By 202BC, he reached an understanding with Philip, of the Antigonid house of Macedonia, who also suffered an annoying close presence of Egyptian power in Thrace and Greece, aimed at a partition of the Ptolemaic empire. Antiochus III was sufficiently focused on the conquest of Coele Syria that he was willing to allow Philip free reign with Ptolemaic possessions on the eastern coast of Asia Minor (long claimed by the house of Seleucus) in order to secure the alliance.

The Egyptians, however, were not without allies. Close at hand, both Rhodes and Pergamos along the coasts of Asia Minor, and the Aetolian league in Greece, aligned their interests with the house of Ptolemy. In the background, as well, was the rising power of Rome from the western Mediterranean.

When the alliance with Philip had been concluded, Antiochus III launched his cherished project. The disorganization in Egypt at this time, with differing factions fighting to control the infant king, contributed greatly to his success. Steadily his forces reduced the cities throughout the region, reaching down into Judea in Palestine. By 199 B.C., the area was a secure part of the empire.

Philip's Offensive With Egypt

Weakened and distracted, Philip launched his own offensive. His forces razed the Ptolemaic strongholds in Thrace and the Hellespont to the ground, including Lysimachia, Sestos, Perinthus and Cius. In 201BC, he took the island of Samos in the Aegean with a strong fleet.

He then landed in Asia Minor, drove the Pergamene forces back behind their walls and proceeded to waste the countryside. In accordance with the agreement, Zeuxis, the Seleucid satrap of Lydia, provided some half-hearted support for Philip.

The whole campaign now turned on naval power, as the fleets of Pergamum and Rhodes struck back. The first battle at sea went against Philip, but the second was in his favor. Some of the remaining Greek cities began throwing their lot in with him, but a third and final battle saw his fleet defeated and naval supremacy returned to Rhodes and Pergamum. Philip's army, cut off from supplies and getting little help from Zeuxis, was unable to make any further inroads.

Rome Enters the Scene

It was at this time that the influence of Rome began to exert a significant influence on events in the western Mediterranean. Having defeated Carthage in the second Punic War, Rome's power and influence were supreme in the western Mediterranean. Her professed devotion to Hellenic culture and the principle of Hellenic autonomy, combined with her republican form of government, appealed to those states most opposed to the successor kingdoms, Pergamum, Rhodes and Athens.

Their pleas to Rome brought an ultimatum to Philip, who was engaged in the siege of Abydos in Asia Minor. Tensions swelled, and two Roman legions crossed the Adriatic, beginning the First Macedonian War.

As Rome and Macedonia battled, Antiochus was inevitably sucked into the fray. Philip was, at least nominally, his ally. His heart was also with Philip against the upstarts from the west. But in this game of high stakes manouvering, Antiochus III showed his weakest side. Decisive support for Philip could have measurably affected the outcome of the war, while firm neutrality would have preserved good relations with Rome. He could bring himself to do neither.

The army of Attalus had crossed over into Greece to assist Rome. In the winter of 199-198BC, Antiochus invaded the virtually undefended territories of his old enemy. Attalus turned to Rome for help, and they sent a strong protest to Antiochus. He meekly withdrew. Philip was on his own, and, worse, Rome and Attalus now held a grudge against him.

Scopus Challenges Antiochus in Coele Syria

At this time other events took up his attention as well. Scopas, the former strategos of the Aetolian league, had recruited a force of 6,000 foot and 500 horse and offered his services to the Ptolemaic kingdom. He was installed as commander in chief and proceeded to drive the Seleucid garrisons from Coele Syria. Once again, Antiochus\rquote successes were evaporating before his eyes.

Gathering his forces swiftly, he met Scopas near Panion in a great battle. The Seleucid elephants played a decisive role, and Scopas was soundly beaten. Antiochus's son (another Antiochus) played a prominent part in the battle, beginning to emerge from beneath his father's shadow.

Scopas was then shut up in Sidon with his remaining 10,000 men, and forced to capitulate after a long siege. All of Coele Syria was now firmly in the hands of the Seleucid kingdom, and this time the power of Egypt in this area was permanently broken. Relations with Egypt returned to normal following the conquest of Coele Syria, and Antiochus was able to cement some permanence to the situation by marrying a daughter, Cleopatra, to the young Ptolemy (she went on to become the first in the long line of Cleopatras to sit on the Ptolomeic throne as queen). Antiochus Turns West

The following spring, 197BC, Antiochus turned his attention to Asia Minor. Ostensibly his objective was to subjugate the Ptolemaic possessions which infested the coast. Two of the king's sons, Ardys and Mithridates, lead the forces of the kingdom over the Taurus. Antiochus joined them in Sardis, and one by one they reduced the coastal cities to allegiance.

At Coracesium, the strongest place along the rugged Cilician coast, he met his first check. A large rock jutting out into the Mediterranean, Coracesium was a formidable fortress. Unable to storm it, the Seleucid forces settled down to invest it.

The Defeat of Philip

Rhodes, alarmed at his advance and fearing he meant to join forces with Philip of Macedon, sent an embassy telling Antiochus that further advance beyond this point would be met by the naval power of Rhodes. While the diplomats on both sides were sorting this out, news arrived of Philip's crushing defeat by the Romans at Cynoscephalae on the Thessalian plains.

Overnight, the political situation had changed. Glimmering prizes now danced before Antiochus. Certainly, the spoils that were to have been Philip's in Asia Minor should now be easily conquered. Beyond this lay the lure of Europe, and that greatest of all prizes - reuniting all of Alexander's empire.

Despite these opportunities, a closer analysis shows shifting sand under the Seleucid king's position. His estrangement from Philip was now complete--he had offered no tangible support, and had even taken some of the spoils allotted to Macedonia. Never again would the two houses enjoy close or even cordial ties.

On the other hand, Rome and her allies--Pergamum, Rhodes and Athens--were convinced that Antiochus meant to join with Philip, and so now treated him with the polite hostility of a confirmed enemy. By his indecision, he had managed to alienate everyone.

Whether the Hellenistic world could ever have stopped the growing might of Rome is a difficult question. What is clearly true is that the best chance they had for doing so had just been squandered by Antiochus' indecision.

In the aftermath of Cynoscephalae, Antiochus continued his efforts to exert his control over the entire coast of Asia Minor. Many of the former Ptolemaic and Macedonian possessions fell to him, but many others went to Rhodes or achieved independence. Nevertheless, his position was strengthened in Pamphylia, Lycia and Caria. He even turned over Stratonicea, captured from Philip's forces, to Rhodes in an effort to build friendlier relations.

Antiochus in Ionia

Antiochus now reached Ionia. The Greek cities of Ionia had historically enjoyed a great deal of freedom and independence. During the rule of Achaeus in Asia Minor, those under Seleucid "control" were nominally subject to the satrap of Lydia, who exercised little direct control over the area.

Antiochus aimed his sites at Ephesus, one of the last remaining Ptolemaic enclaves in Asia Minor. Ephesus at this time boasted an impressive citadel, commanding Ionia and the Hellespont. In late 197 B.C., Antiochus overthrew the garrison, and established his new capital there. From here his sights were firmly set on Europe.

During the winter Antiochus moved to bring the cities of northern Ionia and the Hellespont under his rule. The key cities in these areas, Smyrna in Ionia and Lampsacus in the Hellespont, were the focus of his energies. His strategy was to pressure them on two fronts \endash his armies moved up outside their walls, and simultaneously his diplomats moved through each city, urging a return to allegiance and its rewards.

The Appeal to Rome

It was Lampsacus which took the inevitable next step in the escalation--she appealed to Rome. Lampsacus was founded as a colony of Phocae, as had been Massilia (Marseilles), so the embassy sent went first to Massilia to enlist their support in the appeal to Rome.

It was at this time that the end of an era occurred in Pergamum--the ancient Attalus (he was 72) passed from the scene. He was succeeded by his eldest son Eumenes, ably assisted by his younger brothers Attalus, Philetaerus and Athenaeus.

In the diplomatic efforts which followed, Rome took up the nominal cause of Greek liberty and began negotiating in an effort to get Antiochus to return all of his conquests of the past year. Also, Rome made it clear that under no circumstances was he to cross into Europe and disturb the new Pax Romanum there.

Antiochus in Thrace

Antiochus had other ideas. He crossed into Europe in Thrace, where the retreat of Philip's garrisons had resulted in heavy activity by the "barbarian" Thracians, including the burning of Lysimachia, former capital of the kingdom of Lysimachus. Antiochus' design was to re-establish this kingdom, run by his second son Seleucus, as an appendage of the Seleucid realm. This created unease and animosity on the part of both the Romans and Philip.

Antiochus devoted sincere efforts to rebuilding Lysimachia, including finding and freeing a large number of the original inhabitants, who had been enslaved at its fall, and left much of his army and fleet in the vicinity to assist in the building. He then took his remaining forces and campaigned against the Thracian tribes, driving them back into the interior of the province.

A stormy session followed his return from campaign, as embassies of the Romans and also several of his Greek cities reached him. The Roman envoys were insistent that he must withdraw from Europe, and grant freedom to each of the Greek cities of Asia Minor he held, except those formerly belonging to Philip, which should be turned over to Rome. Antiochus found these demands preposterous. Rome was at this time a major power only in the western Mediterranean. He refused their request adamantly.

The situation was saved from getting out of hand by rumor of the death of the young king of Egypt. Both the Roman envoys and Antiochus made haste to depart Thrace, Antiochus leaving Seleucus with the remaining troops there to hold Lysimachia.

When it became clear that the rumor was false, Antiochus briefly considered altering his plans and seizing Cyprus. Unfortunately, a storm wrecked much of his fleet off Cilicia. Unable to carry out the invasion, he continued home to Seleucia.

High Tide for the Great King

That winter (195BC), Antiochus remained in Antioch. Before it was over, his eldest son Antiochus was wed to his daughter Laodice. This was the first full brother-sister marriage for the house of Seleucus, though it was consistent with royal Persian tradition, and commonplace in Ptolemaic Egypt. He also took into his service the great general Hannibal, who had been obliged to flee from Carthage by Roman influence.

In the following year, Antiochus completed his conquest of Thrace, breaking the power of the Thracians for some time. In so doing, he cemented a strong relationship with Byzantium, the gates of Europe.

In hindsight, it was at this moment that Antiochus had pushed the power of Rome about as far as he could without creating a war. His harboring of Hannibal gained him no friends among the Romans, while his entrance in Thrace and his unwillingness to free the Asiatic Greek cities angered them.

It was clear, however, that the Romans would fight to maintain their supremacy in Greece itself. It is interesting to contemplate what would have happened had Antiochus stopped in 195 B.C. and concentrated his energies to improving the internal administration of the empire. He certainly would be remembered much differently today.

The Situation in Greece

Antiochus was, however, not inclined to administrative work, and the situation in Greece looked promising. The Aetolians were making known their unhappiness with Rome's occupation of the "fetters of Greece"; the citadel of Corinth, Demetrias and Chalcis.

The following year, 194 B.C., actually saw the Romans withdraw their garrisons from Greece in response to these protests. In so doing, they created a dangerous power vacuum in the area. The Aetolians continued to lobby for a Hellenistic alliance against Rome, pulling in Sparta and trying to enlist Ptolemaic and Seleucid support. Hannibal, seeing a chance to get even with Rome, supported intervention as well.

Antiochus Strengthens his Position in Asia

Meanwhile, Antiochus continued to strengthen his position in Asia. In 192 B.C., still concerned about his lines of communication, he launched yet another offensive against the Pisidians.

He also focused on uniting the smaller powers of Asia against the growth of Roman influence. He was successful with Bithynia, whose king, Prusias, had been a staunch ally of Phillip of Macedon and no friend of Rome. He also succeeded in cementing a firm alliance with Kappadokia, under the young Ariarathes IV (nicknamed "the pious"), with the marriage of his daughter Antiochis.

With Pergamum, however, he was less successful, despite the offer of his daughter and the return of all of their coastal allied cities. Campaigning with Rome during the Macedonian War, Eumenes had seen the power and vigor of Rome firsthand, and Pergamum was to remain a steadfast Roman ally throughout this period.

Another Roman Embassy

Into this situation arrived another embassy from Rome. Rome argued for the evacuation of Thrace, as it posed a threat to their position in Greece, and in freedom for the Asian Greek cities. Antiochus refused to acknowledge their right to intervene in these matters. Much discussion took place, with envoys of the cities being paraded in to air their "grievances" against Seleucid rule.

Two other parties also pushed for outright conflict, both from personal interest. Hannibal was a strong voice for war in the circle of Antiochus, as he longed to take the field and avenge his defeat by Rome. Eumenes of Pergamum served a like role in the camp of the Romans, feeling that a Roman victory would allow him to reclaim most of Asia Minor from Antiochus.

Although the embassy accomplished nothing of substance, the heated dialog had the effect of convincing both parties that war was inevitable. Indeed, the ambitions of Rome required that she hang on to Greece, and Antiochus was light headed with the family dream of reuniting Alexander's empire under their leadership, and these ambitions could not be reconciled without war.

It was also during this period that Antiochus' eldest son, also Antiochus, passed away in Syria where he was serving as king.

Final Maneuvering Prior to War

The feeling of inevitable conflict brought an urgency to the preparations of both sides. A Roman naval squadron was dispatched to Greek waters, and ship building efforts hastened.

Both sides focused their diplomatic efforts on securing allies for the coming struggle. Antiochus concentrated on the Aetolians. Their break with Rome widened, and they came into open alliance with the Great King. They immediately tried to seize Sparta, Demetrias and Chalcis for the coming of the Seleucid force, but succeeded only in Demetrias. Using this gateway as a lure, they invited the intervention of Antiochus in Greece.

The stage was now set for the final showdown with Rome.

Wargaming the Era: Guidelines for Recreating the Later Army of Antiochus III on the Tabletop

More Seleucid Army

Seleucid Army: Part 1
Seleucid Army: Part 2
Seleucid Army: Part 3
Seleucid Army: Part 4
Seleucid Army: Part 5
Seleucid Army: Part 6
Seleucid Army: Part 7
Seleucid Army: Part 8
Seleucid Army: Part 9
Seleucid Army: Part 10
Seleucid Army: Part 11