Considerable confusion and misconception surround the general understanding of the United States Army during the War of 1812 and I hope to subtract somewhat from this situation. Part I of this article addresses the regiment as well as higher organizations and wartime mobilization, while part II will discuss some particulars of uniforms and equipment. The U.S. Army was composed of three elements: regulars, militia, and volunteers. In 1811 the regulars consisted of fewer than 8,000 soldiers organized in the following regiments: 1st through 7th Infantry Regiments The Regiment of Riflemen The Regiment of Artillerists The Regiment of Light Artillery The Regiment of Light Dragoons The regular regiments were broken up into companies which were scattered along the periphery of the country. They garrisoned coastal forts, forts in the interior, as well as forts along the borders of the Spanish Empire and British North America. To cut expenses, many artillery and dragoon companies served as infantry. Backing up this slender regular force was a massive militia organization. Every free adult male was obliged to own a firearm and enroll and train with the local militia organization. The militia could be called out by the local commander in an emergency (e.g. Indian attack, slave uprising) or by the governor. The president could call up the militia in the event of invasion or insurrection and in this case, would pay all costs. Training was hardly worth the name and despite myths to the contrary, most citizens did not own firearms of a suitable nature to fight. Both the states and the federal government maintained armories with large numbers of military muskets, some artillery, and a modest amount of knapsacks, cartridge boxes, bayonets, and canteens. The militia were formed into infantry and artillery companies and these organized into regiments. Artillery companies were particularly popular along the coasts. Governors appointed the field grade officers (colonels, lieutenant colonels, and majors) while the men of each locality elected company grade officers (captains, lieutenants, ensigns). The states prescribed uniforms but typically only the officers invested in these. Very typically, the state uniform closely resembled the federal uniforms. The third classification of soldier was the volunteer, a class between regular and militia. There were two kinds of volunteers, those who served in volunteer units in peacetime and those who served during war. The peacetime volunteer belonged to a company or battalion-sized unit which was essentially a semi-private organization. The members were accepted by the unit, they bought their own, ornate uniforms, weapons, and equipment, and they agreed to train more frequently than militia. What they gained was increased social status, the opportunity to play at martial arts, and, apparently, girls who were attracted to men in uniform (the same reason we wargame, right?) These volunteer companies were organized and trained as artillery, infantry, light infantry, rifles, dragoons, and hussars. The men were economically well off enough to afford the uniforms, weapons, and even horses. Very often the states integrated these volunteer companies into the militia organization. A regiment might have nine companies of militia and a volunteer company of light infantry. Likewise, a militia brigade might be augmented by a company of volunteer dragoons. These volunteers were given dispensation from training with the militia. In some communities, the volunteer companies served as the posse or quick reaction force when the judge or sheriff required them. The second type of volunteer was a wartime phenomenon. The Secretary of War authorized governors to raise volunteer regiments for six or twelve months. These units were sometimes referred to as "federal volunteers". The governor appointed the officers who, in turn, persuaded men to enlist. These volunteers received the same pay as regulars but without the bonuses and land for a full term of service (usually five years). Volunteers typically provided their own uniforms but on occasion were issued regular uniforms from the federal government. Sometimes they provided their own arms and sometimes these were issued as were equipment and supplies. The volunteer units were popular because patriotic or adventurous Americans were willing to fight for short periods of time under their own officers and alongside their neighbors. Mounted and dismounted rifle regiments and infantry regiments were most popular. Sometimes peacetime volunteer companies formed the nucleus of the wartime volunteer regiments. Volunteer regiments typically used their state of origin in their names e.g. 1st Kentucky Rifles or 3rd Ohio Volunteers. There were also four regiments of volunteer infantry organized directly by the federal government, the 1st through 4th U.S. Volunteers. Sometimes volunteer units took the names of their commander such as Fenton's Pennsylvania Volunteers or McClure's Rifles, a composite of companies from Albany and Baltimore. And lastly, a volunteer unit could simply name itself such as the Republican Greens, a four-company battalion raised in New York City and based upon a pre-war volunteer organization. Wartime Mobilization In anticipation of war, Congress enlarged the regular army. The infantry was expanded repeatedly until it reached a peak of 48 regiments. Additional artillery, rifle, and dragoon units were also allowed until Congress had authorized a total of 63,000 men for the regular force. However, the popularity of the volunteers over the regular army (and the unpopularity of the war in many quarters) resulted in an actual strength that never exceeded 35,000. This meant that many regiments were chronically understrength in enlisted men although the president was adept at commissioning nearly a full allotment of officers. Congress also authorized President Madison to raise volunteer regiments and to call up militia into federal service. When the President asked a governor for militia for a short period of service (usually six months) the governor did not mobilize an existing regiment. Because existing regiments included all eligible men, doing so would strip an area of virtually every able bodied adult male. Instead, the governor ordered several existing regiments to provide a quota of soldiers. These men were almost always volunteers but if the quota was not met, the militia commander could draft young men to meet the quota. These were then formed into what was called "Detached Militia" in the sense that they were temporarily detached from militia service in the state, would be brought into federal service, and could serve anywhere inside the national boundaries. These regiments were given names which included the state, such as 2nd Pennsylvania Rifles or 5th Kentucky Infantry. The state would attempt to uniform and arm them from state armories but sometimes the federal government would do so. Higher Organizations In 1812, the Secretary of War organized the regular force into three armies. These were the "Army of the North", the "Army of the Northwest" and the "Southern Army". These armies had geographic borders although there was often confusion as to what the precise boundaries were. The army commander had command over all regular units, volunteer formations, and militia called into federal service within his army boundaries. He was expected to work closely with the state governors and the militia units not in federal service. Since an army area was a vast expanse, the commanding general typically organized divisions and brigades and gave command of these to subordinate generals. A brigade was an ad hoc organization usually commanded by a brigadier general. Each brigade looked different. All brigades were a combination of infantry regiments and might also include rifle, artillery, or dragoon units as well. Brigades were numbered (e.g. First Brigade) but typically were referred to by their commander's name as well (e.g. Scott's Brigade). Often, but not always, brigades were organized as all regulars or all volunteers or all militia. A division was a combination of two or more brigades and was typically commanded by a major general. It might have subordinate artillery and dragoon units as well. Divisions were named Left (western) or Right (eastern) but might also go by their commander's name. Sometimes the divisions were fighting organizations (all brigades fighting alongside one another) and sometimes they were administrative organizations (brigades fighting on separated fronts). In 1813 it became apparent to the Secretary of War that the current system of sub-dividing the U.S. into three armies was too inefficient to prosecute the war. He therefore organized U.S. territory into nine (later ten) military districts, each run by a general officer and a small staff. The district with the most soldiers assigned to it was the Ninth Military District, which encompassed upstate New York and Vermont. Large numbers of troops were stationed here because this was the most active theater, including as it did the Niagara Frontier, the coast of Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence River and the area around Lake Champlain. The Infantry By regulation, the infantry regiment consisted of ten companies, each of about 100 officers and men. The regiment was commanded by a colonel who was assisted by a small staff. A captain commanded the company. By regulation, there was no distinction among companies but many colonels designated two "flank" companies and routinely used them as skirmishers or gave them other independent missions. There were no official uniform distinctions. Each infantry regiment was given a geographic area in which to recruit. For example, the 1st Infantry recruited in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the 7th in Kentucky, the 23rd in western New York and the 44th in Louisiana. Because of the weak appeal of regular service, the infantry regiments ALMOST NEVER operated with all ten companies. Typically the regiment would send recruiting parties to several locations in their recruiting area. New recruits were sent to the regimental mustering area. As a hundred or so gathered, they were sworn in as a company, issued the recruit uniform (usually a white or gray linen jacket over white gaiter-trousers) and began training. When the regiment was ordered to the front, either the colonel or one of his field grade officers (the lieutenant colonel or one of the two majors) would take whatever companies were available and start the long march to the army or military district headquarters. The residue of the regiment left behind would continue recruiting and training. Putting this all together, a regiment might be serving in several places at once. One battalion (a recognized but unofficial grouping of more than one company) might be serving with the Left Division under the colonel, a second battalion under a major with the Right Division, while one or more companies under a major trained back in the recruiting area. Also, small detachments might be at one or more hospitals ready to rejoin the regiment. The companies of the regiment might never serve all together! In June 1812, there were a total of 25 regular regiments authorized by Congress. Some were at nearly full strength while others had just begun recruiting. In March of 1813, Infantry Regiment 26 through 44 were authorized. In March 1814, the Congress authorized four volunteer regiments to be brought into the regular army and for four other regiments to be consolidated int( two (recognition that these four regiments were recruiting very slowly and would not reach authorized levels). Thus, by the end of the war, the 1st through 46th Infantry existed at various strengths and with battalions and detachments in numerous locations. The volunteer and detached militia infantry was a mixed bag. Because service in the volunteers had much more appeal than service with the regulars, these units recruited quickly. Since the period of service was also for a short period (6 or 12 months), these units also disappeared from the rolls quickly. The following service records give some idea of the variety of unit history. 1st Regiment Pennsylvania Infantry. In April 1812, Madison asked Pennsylvania to provide 4000 militia. This regiment of detached militia was called into service in the fall of 1812 and recruited six companies under a Lieutenant Colonel Snyder. It was mustered into service at Meadville as part of Brigadier General Tannehill's Brigade of Pennsylvania Volunteers. Reporting to Buffalo after the Battle of Queenston, the regiment was involved in Smyth's abortive invasion in December. Faced with the prospect of fighting outside the national boundaries (constitutionally questionable) and serving under Smyth (whose leadership qualities were not up to the task), desertion was rife and the brigade was disbanded on 30 December 1812. 3rd Regiment U.S. Volunteers. Throughout the war, there was fear that the Royal Navy would appear off the Atlantic coast and land an invasion army (as they did in 1814). Authorized in the fall of 1812, this regiment began recruiting in December. Alexander Denniston was commissioned colonel in February 1813. Although soldiers signed on for twelve months, the regiment recruited constantly and thus was kept on the books throughout the war. In April 1814 they were reportedly uniformed in a blue coat trimmed in yellow. Carson's Regiment. Recruited in Mississippi Territory for 12 months, this regiment served in General Claiborne's Volunteer Brigade. Joseph Carson became its colonel in April 1813. The regiment saw action in November and December of 1813, participating in the destruction of the Creek village of Enonochaca. Soon after, it was mustered out of federal service. 1st through 3rd Ohio Volunteers. These three unfortunate regiments were authorized in April of 1812 and formed up in Dayton Ohio where they mustered into federal service under their colonels, Duncan McArthur, James Findlay, and Lewis Cass respectively. They were assigned to Brigadier General William Hull's Army of the Northwest and were included in his ignoble surrender. The men were paroled and the regiments officially disbanded. The Regiment of Light Artillery This regular regiment was authorized in 1808 with ten companies (in the U.S. Army at this time, the term battery was not a company-sized organization, it was a grouping of guns in firing position). Each company was authorized 88 (later 95) officers and men. However, horses were expensive and the regiment was essentially foot artillery or infantry until the beginning of the war. Even then, some companies fought as infantry. This regiment recruited in the northern states and was assigned to the Army of the North and subsequently to the 9th Military District. Companies of the Light Artillery saw action in almost every battle between Buffalo and Chateauguay. The Artillery Prior to 1812, all artillery was organized as the Regiment of Artillerists which consisted of five battalions of four companies each. In January 1812, two additional regiments were authorized by Congress so the U.S. Army entered the war with the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Regiments of Artillery. All had twenty companies, but the first had 81 in each company while the newer regiments had 95. Like the Light Artillery, many companies fought as infantry. In May of 1814, all artillery was consolidated into the Corps of Artillery. This was organized into 12 battalions of 4 companies each. Thus the artillery went from 60 companies to 48. The Rifles The Regiment of Riflemen was authorized in 1808. In 1812 there were ten companies each of 82 officers and men. The companies were scattered around the periphery of the country (the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys, northern New York, and the border with Spanish Florida). Eventually the regiment was consolidated into two groupings, one along the Niagara Frontier and the other supporting the army near Lake Champlain. The riflemen were such stalwarts and provided service beyond their numbers that Congress, in February 1814, authorized three more regiments. Thus the regiments were numbered I st through 4th Regiments of Riflemen. These newest regiments never recruited up to strength but companies of the 4th Regiment, recruited in New York and Pennsylvania, saw action at the defense of Fort Erie along with the 1st Regiment. While the 1st Regiment retained its distinctive green uniform as long as possible, the new regiments were authorized gray coats and trousers but with the traditional green rifle frock coats if available. Riflemen appealed to the general imagination and rifle companies and regiments appeared throughout the volunteer organizations as well as the detached militia, not only in the west but in eastern states as well. For example, the I st and 2nd Regiments of Pennsylvania Riflemen were part of General Tannehill's Brigade at Buffalo. The I st Kentucky Rifles mustered into federal service in Georgetown in August 1812 and fought at Frenchtown and River Raisin. Many volunteer regiments, nominally infantry, were armed in whole or part with rifles. Similarly, many volunteer organizations, particularly but not exclusively in Tennessee and Kentucky, were organized as mounted rifles. The Dragoons In 1808 Congress authorized the Regiment of Light Dragoons. This regiment had eight companies (like battery, the term troop was not used in the U.S. Army at this time to denote a specific organization of cavalry). In January 1812 a second regiment was added, this one of 12 companies, which made the original regiment the I st Regiment of Light Dragoons. Despite the differing number of companies in the two regiments, each company was identical with 86 officers and men. Never were all the dragoons mounted. Many companies fought as infantry, temporarily forsaking their sabers and riding boots for muskets and shoes. Never recruited up to full strength, the two regiments were consolidated in March of 1814 into a regiment of Light dragoons with only eight companies. As stated earlier, there were many troops of dragoons (and even hussars) organized among the volunteers. I hope this article has provoked some interest in America's part of the Napoleonic wars. Part II will cover some specifics on uniforms and equipment. American Army of War of 1812: Part II (MWAN #99) Back to MWAN #98 Table of Contents Back to MWAN List of Issues Back to MagWeb Magazine List © Copyright 1999 Hal Thinglum This article appears in MagWeb (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other military history articles and gaming articles are available at http://www.magweb.com