Hungarian War of Independence
1848-1849

The Hungarian Revolution

By William W. Haggart

The Hungarian War of Independence has traditionally been divided into four parts:

    1. The confusing political turmoil and opening skirmishes in the spring and summer of 1848.

    2. Then the Hungarians struggle to survive defeats and build their armies in the fall of 1848 and winter of 1849.

    3. The Hungarians' amazing offensives, which drive the Austrians out of their territory and carry them to the gates of Vienna by May of 1849.

    4. The Hungarians' success brings the Russian juggernaut into the war on the side of the Austrian Emperor, overwhelming the Hungarians by the middle of August 1849.

Because of the many unfamiliar names, they have been held to a minimum and Hungarian leaders have been italicized. Major battles are highlighted. If there is interest, scenarios will be offered in the future. At the end of each period of the war, the gaming opportunities will be briefly examined.

1. The Political Insurrection from March-October 1848

The revolution in Paris during February 1848 sparked revolts across Europe, frightening the monarchies from England to Russia. By March, riots and fighting had occurred in Germany, England, Italy, and Poland. Most of the Northern Italian provinces had declared their independence from Austria, and the radicals in Vienna were also threatening revolution.

The Hungarian Diet had always seen itself as a semi-independent member of the Austrian Empire, Ferdinand V's titles being the Emperor of Austria, but elected King of Hungary. Using the revolutions within the Empire as leverage, Hungary pressured Ferdinand into granting the April Laws. These gave general autonomy to Hungary, including control over Hungarian regular units in the imperial army as well as the right to raise a national guard. Almost immediately the Austrian nobility and conservatives began plotting to reverse this loss of Imperial control.

The actual transition of power to Hungary was confused because of a governmental meltdown in the Austrian government. Four prime ministers left office in as many weeks during April, while conservatives and liberals struggled for power. Almost immediately, Serbian, Slovak, and Romanian nationals in Hungary demanded similar independence from what was now the Hungarian nation. Hungary was unwilling to grant this. This sparked insurrection among the Romanians in Transylvania and in the Serbians along the southern border.

The 9th Petervarad Grenz (or border guards) was the first regular Imperial unit to join the Serbian rebels shortly followed by the 12th German Banat and 18th Illyrian Banat Grenz. This defection began the "little war" as the conflict on the Serbian border was called. Regular Imperial regiments and Hungarian National Guard battalions fought Austrian regulars allied with Serbian insurgents. Even though these revolts were in direct violation of Imperial law, the conservatives in Vienna openly supported the fighting against Hungary, sending aid to the Serbians. Several battles were fought involving opposing forces of 10,000 or more, but the situation remained active and unresolved by winter, even with the addition of more Imperial troops and volunteers from Serbia itself fighting with the insurgents.

The political situation was further confused by events in Croatia. Until 1848, Croatia and Hungary had been joined as equal states under the Hungarian Crown. The Croats wanted similar national integrity as that granted the Hungarians by the Emperor.

When Hungary was slow to agree, Josip Jellai li' I, appointed the Ban or military governor of Croatia in March, took matters into his own hands. A rabid supporter of the Imperial Monarchy and a Croat nationalist, he unilaterally ignored orders from Vienna, conspired with the Austrian conservatives and broke off relations with Hungary. He then invaded Hungary on September 11th at the head of Croat and Imperial army. (49,215 infantry, 1,902 cavalry and 48 guns) The new Hungarian Parliament was having its own political problems and lost time in realizing that JellaL11L had invaded--without orders from the Emperor.

To face him, the Hungarians could gather 17,500 infantry, mostly National Guard units, 2,100 of their excellent Hussars, and 44 guns. The armies met at Pakozd on September 28th. Jellacic had not expected the Hungarians to resist and only had 28,000 troops available. The Hungarians fought the Croats to a draw. On September 30th, Jellacic inexplicably offered a cease-fire and began to withdraw.

The political situation continued to deteriorate for the Austrians. On October 6, the Richter Grenadier Battalion mutinied when ordered to entrain for Hungary. While this was due to their reluctance to fight Hungarian regulars, their brothers-in-arms, the mutiny found immediate support among the Vienna radicals. Riots broke out and the current Prime Minister, Count Latour, was murdered. The army garrison retreated and the city fell into the hands of the radicals. The Imperial Court fled to Olmutz.

In response, Jellacic marched his army from Croatia to Vienna and combined with the reorganized garrison outside the capital. These troops retook the city amid fierce fighting on October 28th. The Hungarian forces had followed Jellacic's army, but hesitated in crossing their border to aid the Vienna rebels until it was too late. On October 30, when they did advance, the Imperial forces met the Hungarian army under General Artdr Gorgei at Schwechat. The Hungarian army of 27,000 was divided up into 10 brigades with 82 guns, which was about equal to the Imperial army of 25,000 (23 1/2 battalions) 5,000 cavalry (37 sqns) and 99 guns.

The equality was an illusion as more than half the Hungarians had never seen battle before. The raw National Guard units in the center dissolved under the fire of Austrian 12 lb cannon before the battle could develop. The few regular units and the Hungarian Hussars saved the retreating army from any real harm. Even Austrian commander, General Windisch-Gratz, observing the Hungarian rearguard action, said, "This is not a riff-raff rebellious mob. This is an army."

Wargame Possibilities: During this phase of the war there are guerilla actions on the Serbian border, with several small, brigade-sized battles between Hungarian and Grenz regulars. In the north, you have Hungarian militia with regulars fighting a polyglot Croatian army of mixed ability and then Austrian regulars. Many of the Hungarian National Guards units are nothing more than peasants armed with family guns or farm tools. Not only are there many possible scenarios for skirmish games, but several small to medium-sized battles between armies of varied ability.

2. The Winter Campaign (November 1848--February 1849)

Regardless of the April Laws, it became obvious that Hungary would have to fight for its sovereignty and from the performance of the National Guard at Schwechat, it was not an adequate instrument for that defense. The first regular Hungarian infantry units were raised, ten Honed (Defenders of the Homeland) battalions. They were formed around army regulars, the existing National Guard, and volunteers. 12% were university students. These first battalions of the over 170 battalions raised became the backbone of the new Hungarian armed forces (The Honvedseg) and the shock troops of the army.

An ex-captain from the Austrian army, Artur Gorgei was given the command of the northern army corps facing the Austrians in the fall of 1848, while a Polish expatriate, Jozef Bem and Slavic Mor Percezel were appointed the leaders of the southern forces facing the Serbians and Romanians. The newly raised volunteer army was commanded by men between the ages of 26 and 35. They faced a professional army led by nobles all in their sixties.

Bem, Precezel and Klapka worked miracles in holding the Eastern Theater against superior numbers of Austrians, Romanians and Serbs. There were several battles where the Hungarians used their interior lines to beat back the encircling Austrians.

In the Western theatre between Vienna and Budapest, Austrian General Windisch-Gratz had been put in command of an army of now nearly 80,000 (59 battalions, 67 squadrons, 200 guns). Gorgei could field no more than 27,000 men to face him. With his superior numbers, Windisch-Gratz immediately moved to take Buda and Pest, assuming that capturing their capital would induce the Hungarians to capitulate. It was a typically napoleonic conclusion, which did not prove to be true fighting a people's army.

At the insistence of the Government, Gorgei fought two delaying actions at Mor and Babolina, which proved to be costly. To the north on the Danube, the fortress of Komarom was besieged. Gorgei chose to save the army and give up Budapest. The leader of the Hungarian Parliament, Lajos Kossuth, felt that Gorgei had betrayed them. He would do other things to anger Kossuth. In response, Kossuth would make decisions detrimental to the Hungarian war efforts.

In December, the conservative factions and nobles forced Emperor Ferdinand V to abdicate in favor of his 18 year-old nephew, Franz Josef. The Boy Emperor immediately denounced the April Laws. He further called on all army officers to return to their Imperial standards. While Hungary still considered Ferdinand their king and certainly had not elected Franz Josef, many experienced officers deserted to the Austrians, 100 from Gorgei's army alone. To stop this exodus, Gorgei unilaterally published a political declaration about Hungary's legal rights, which did stem the tide of desertions, but again angered Kossuth. He felt the action had been treasonous.

Buda and Pest fell to the Austrian army on January 5th. However, Windisch-Gratz's army had been reduced to about 50,000 in its advance, both in protecting its extended supply line and by diverting 14,000 troops to lay siege to Komarom. When the Austrian army advanced east of Budapest, Kossuth removed Gorgei and put another Polish exile, Count Henryk Dembiski, in command. It was an unfortunate decision. While both armies were about the same size, 50,000 each, the Hungarian forces were now battle-tested and well supplied. Dembiski would waste the opportunity.

At the Battle of Kapolna, February 26 and 27th, Dembiski first failed to take advantage of local Hungarian superiority on the first day of battle and on the second day, he made errors redeploying the army, while failing to call up all of his available forces. The army was defeated after a tough fight, but again was saved by a strong rearguard action led by Gorgei. At the insistence of the army generals, Kossuth removed Dembiski and reinstated Gorgei. Meanwhile General Windisch-Gratz boasted to Vienna that his victory at Kapolna signaled the end of the Hungarian revolt.

In the east, Bem was still significantly outnumbered, especially as 7,000 Russians from Luders Fifth Army Corps in Wallachia had crossed the border into Transylvania to garrison the Austrian supply bases, freeing the Imperial forces to descend on Bem. He barely held his army together after the defeats of Deva and Vizaknaas, giving up most of Southern Transylvania.

Even with significant setbacks on both fronts, the Honved did not collapse as Windisch-Gratz predicted. In an amazing show of tenacity, Bem marched north and joined with Hungarians forces there. Together they met General Puchner's Austrian army at Piski on February 9th and destroyed them, freeing Northern Transylvania. Meanwhile Hungarian General Perczel's II Army Corps, which had adopted the name "Central Mobile Army," won the first victories in the West over Austrian colunms detached by General Windisch-Gratz during January and February. Klapka's I Army Corps also beat the Austrian forces before it.

Wargame Possibilities: There are battles comprising several corps on a side, as well as corps and division-sized battles on all fronts. Organized irregulars are now taking part in regular battles as well as systematic guerilla warfare. The armies on both sides are becoming experienced. There are a huge number of interesting battles during this period. The Hungarians are still on the defensive against the Imperial armies, but now mounting offensives against the Serbs and Romanian insurgents. Both sides besieged, fortresses in the north and south. The Austrians lay siege to the massive Fortress of Komarom, which becomes a focal point of the northern campaigns. There area number of 'relief column' battles north and south.

3. Spring (March to May 1849)

Based on reports of Austrian successes in February and Windisch-Gratz's assurances that the Hungarians were finished, Franz Josef issued a new constitution on March 8th, one that reduced Hungary to a crown province. This negation of not only recent rights granted under the April Laws, but centuries of traditional controls had a striking effect on the Hungarians' view of the war. It was now a matter of national pride and survival as a nation.

By March of 1849 the Austrian forces found themselves played out by the winter campaigning and continued Hungarian resistance. Some historians have criticized WindischGratz for failing to advance after the Battle of Kapolna, but strategically there was little he could do with the Fortress of Komarom still holding out between his army and its supply bases in Austria. Gorgei's corps continued to tease his northern flank threatening to lift the siege and cut his supply lines. Windisch-Gratz was overextended.

The simple fact that the Hungary continued to resist was an encouragement to other revolutionaries in the Empire, as the conservatives had feared. In March, the Piedmontese crossed their borders to support renewed uprisings among the Northern Italians and attacked Radetsky's Austrian army. They were quickly crushed at Navaro on March 23rd.

Gorgei took command of the Hungarian Upper Danubian Army. It was made up of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 7th Army Corps and one independent division, a total of 51,000 men. Facing him east of Pest were the Austrian I, 11 and III Armee Korps of about equal strength. Gorgei now planned an offensive, setting up the campaign with a sharp action at Gyongyos on April 1st. The army would encircle Windisch-Gratz's army, cutting them off from Pest and Austria. The surprise maneuver failed because of faulty reconnaissance, but the entire Hungarian army caught two Austrian Corps on April 6th at Isaszeg (or Godollo).

In a hard fought battle Windisch-Gratz was soundly defeated. Budapest was evacuated and the Austrian forces retreated, the I Korps north, the II south and the III directly west. Baron Ludwig Welden replaced Windisch-Gratz on April 14th. Though Welden immediately ordered an all-out offensive, it was clearly beyond the disheartened Austrian forces do anything but continue to retreat.

Gorgei moved north to threaten the besieging Austrians around Komarom. He defeated the covering force at Nagysall6 on April 19th, again bringing superior numbers to the battlefield. The siege was raised and by May 5th the main Hungarian army had only the demoralized II and III Armee Korps standing between them and Vienna.

Then the Hungarians make what is considered the fatal error of the war. Instead of following up the April victories and destroying the Austrian main army before Vienna, the army turned around and spent three vital weeks besieging the castle in Buda, held by a stubborn garrison of 5,000 Grenz. It finally fell on May 21st, but critical time had been lost.

In the east Bem's divisions, Perczel's Fourth Corps, and Vecsey's Fifth Corps together drove the Austrians and Russians brigades completely out of Transylvania and across the border in a series of hard fought battles. For the first time in the war, Hungary controlled nearly all of its territory. These successes lead the Hungarian Parliament to denounce the Emperor's March 'constitution' and declare its full independence from Austria mid-April. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was now threatened with full dissolution.

Wargaming Possibilities: The most dynamic, formal battles take place during this period, the Hungarians in equal or superior numbers for the first time. The Austrian regulars are now on the defensive, often with lower morale. In the South, the Hungarians win battles against the Austrians, Serbs, Romanians, and Russian regulars, driving them all across the Hungarian borders. The Siege of Buda is perfect for a tabletop siege scenario.

4. the Summer Campaigns (June to August 1849)

On May 1st, Franz Josef met with the Tzar of Russia in Galacia. Austrian Military men had been suggesting the need for Russian assistance since early in the year, but now--conquering Hungary without significant help was questionable. Kneeing before the Tzar and kissing his hand, the Austrian Emperor requested Russian intervention "to prevent the Hungarian insurrection from developing into a European calamity."

There was widespread fear among the continental powers that Hungary's continued success would only create a renewed determination among all the European revolutionaries. When the Russians informed Britain's Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Palmerston of the Austrian's urgent request, he replied, "They [the Hungarians] may be right, but finish with them quickly." Tzar certainly agreed with that analysis. Instead of providing the requested 60,000 troops, he felt an army of 200,000 was the wiser course, with another 80,000 waiting beyond the Austrian borders in reserve. By June, the Russians were crossing the passes into Hungary from Galacia and Wallacia.

Meanwhile the Hungarians were reorganizing the army, which now totaled 150,000 men and 450 guns. Gorgei was made Minister of Defense and many divisional commanders who had proven themselves were given Corps to command. The Austrians could muster no more than 150,000 and 960 guns themselves. Gorgei gave Bem the task of delaying the Russians while he threw the Hungarian main army at the Austrians in the hopes of destroying them in a climatic battle before the Russian hordes became decisive.

The new commander of the Austrian army of five corps, Baron Julius Haynau, had proven himself competent, but ruthless in Italy. He was not going to wait for the Hungarians. He advanced, putting pressure on the Hungarian main army around the Fortress of Komarom. The Hungarians floundered with new corps commanders and under an awkward new command system where Gorgei tried to direct the army while acting as the Minister of Defense in Budapest.

On June 24th Gorgei again took command of the army before the fortress and fought the battle of Komarom (also known as Acs) on July 2nd against Austrian and Russian forces. (28,000 entrenched Hungarians against 32,000 Austrians and 11,500 Russians.) It was a hard fought battle with a number of Hungarian successes, but to avoid being surrounded in the Fortress, the Hungarians retreated. Meanwhile Bem marched completely around the Russian army coming from the east, distracting four times his strength in Russians, slowing their advance. Gorgei brought his army safely to Arad, while Bem slowed but did not stop the Russians in Transylvania.

The Hungarians retreated south from Budapest and the Fourth, Ninth and Tenth Corps took up strong positions on the Danube. Kossuth then intervened again. He placed Dembi /iski in command for political reasons, in spite of the protests from the army generals. At Szeged and Kanizsa August 2nd and 5th, Dembi /iski mismanaged the defense and Haynau defeated the Hungarians, driving them South.

On August 9th, Haynau attacked at Temesvar, even though the opposing forces were fairly equal. Again Dembi /iski managed to give up significant ground. Bem was placed in command, but Dembi /iski failed to tell him of the shortages of ammunition among the artillery. In the afternoon the defense collapsed and the last Hungarian army was in full retreat. Temesvar was the last major battle fought in the war.

Gorgei surrendered the army to the Russians on August 19th, at Vilagos, as a slap at the Austrians, suggesting that the Russians had actually defeated them. The Russians were impressed with Gorgei's and Bem's military accomplishments, and allowed them to leave the country. The majority of the Hungarian officers were not so lucky. Haynau had hundreds of them shot before the Vienna government intervened, and even then, many of the survivors were put on trial and hung as traitors.

There were outraged protests from all the major powers including Russia. Relations between Russia and Austria suffered, both feeling the other had avoided battle. The Russians openly honored the Honved officers, which further strained the relationship.

The Hungarian war has a number of repercussions. Four years later Austria would refuse to help Russia fight the French and British in the Crimea and as a result was openly called the "ungrateful ally" by many Europeans. Piedmont further embarrassed Austria by siding with the Allies. It was a major reason that Austria could find no allies in either 1859 and 1866.

The 1848 War of Independence is still very real for Hungarians. At the end of the war, the cry became, "We never give up an inch of'48." Many of the laws first established in 1848 were included in the Hungarian Constitution when they became a Republic in 1989, and the declaration of independence in 1849 is celebrated with a national holiday. Today, Hungarians still will not toast each other with beer, because Austrian Officers of Haynau's army toasted each other with beer after each Hungarian officer was shot at the end of the war.

Wargaming Possibilities: With Russian armies now involved, the battles become more desperate for the Hungarians and truly multi-national. There are several fighting withdrawals as well as hit-and-run battles. There are 55 engagements fought between just the Hungarians and Russians in the last three months of the war, and the Hungarians win 10 of them, gaining the Russians' respect. Haynau's northern campaign has Hungary's finest army pitted against an Austrian army of equal size supported by 11,500 Russians. There are a number of unique battles, like the Battle of Komdrom, under the walls of the fortress.

Characteristics

Some of the characteristics that should be taken into consideration when gaming the Hungarian War of Independence, regardless of the particular rules set you use are:

1. The dominance of the Hungarian cavalry on the battlefield and in reconnaissance, over heavier and more numerous Austrian horsemen.

2. The early percussion cap. The majority of Austrian and Hungarian forces had a far more reliable firearm, while many of the guerillas, National Guard and the Russian forces continued to fight with flintlocks. Austrian and a majority of Hungarian infantry should enjoy an advantage over troops armed with flintlocks.

3. The Hungarians enjoyed/developed better morale than seen in the Imperial or Russian armies. They developed very rapidly (In less than six months) into very competent military force, which was in some ways superior to the Austrian regular army. Part of this was due to the large number of experienced soldiers and the revolutionary enthusiasm of the volunteers. Also, the fact that a functioning Hungarian civil government had several months in the spring and summer of 1848 to create the structure for a national army while unmolested proved significant.

4. The quality of the Hungarian general officers was uniformly high. Over ninety percent of the Austrian officers from brigade to army level were from the nobility, up significantly from to the Napoleonic wars, and all were several decades older than their Hungarian counterparts. The Hungarian field officers were generally from the middle class. Apart from Dembiiski, Hungarian generals proved to be very competent and often brilliant leaders.

5. While the strategy and grand tactics were decidedly napoleonic, and often brilliantly executed by the Hungarians, new tactics and practices were evident. A greater use of entrenchments was seen. Fortresses also were very important in the war, with several sieges carried out by both sides. The development of Hungarian squad tactics on the battlefield was another innovation. It was sort of a cross between skirmishing and the 'Indian rushes' seen in the Civil War, but with mutually supporting subunits of the platoon. It seems to have been begun in the guerilla wars against the Serbs and Romanians, but used in army battles starting in April.

6. The amazing staying power of the Hungarians, both in individual battles, but also during the entire war. Considering the many political conflicts, ethnic rivalries and efforts of the Austrians to undermine the legitimacy of their government, the Hungarians were able to come back from what could have been fatal losses early in the war and achieve significant victories. Even with the addition of Radeksty's army from Italy, the Austrians would have been hard pressed to defeat the Hungarians after April and they AND the Russians knew it.

More Hungarian War of Independence 1848-1849

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