Argentine Republic

The pope having divided the new world between Spain and Portugal, the former country proceeded vigorously to explore and conquer, and soon what now comprises the Argentine Republic came within the sphere of her influence.

The Rio de La Plata River was discovered by the Spanish explorer De Solis in 1515, and possession was taken for the crown of Spain. Sebastian Cabot explored the river for a long distance in 1528, and planned to colonize the country for Spain, but the project was not well received.

The city of Buenos Ayres was founded by Mendoza in 1535, who had taken up the scheme after it was abandoned by Cabot. The country was extremely fertile. There were no mines, and the natives were treated much better than those of Peru and Mexico. Comparatively few Spanish women came to Argentine, and the wives of the soldiers were from the native stock.

The usual wars with the natives took place, and the country passed under the almost undisputed rule of the Jesuits until their downfall in 1767. There was some trouble with their neighbors, the Portuguese, just across the river at Montevideo, but in general the colony prospered, and in 1777 Uruguay was ceded to Spain by Portugal, and under the title of Colonies of La Plata, Argentine, Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia were governed by one viceroy. The British attacked them in 1797, 1803 and 1806, but were never able to secure a permanent hold, and were driven out in 1807.

When Spain passed under the control of Napoleon the colonies were dissatisfied, and began (1810), under cover of opposition to Napoleon, their struggle for independence.

A confederation was formed. The spirit soon spread throughout all the American colonies. Anarchy and civil war ensued, but Spain was weak, and the confederation gained their last and decisive victory in 1821. Independence assured, they set up separate governments. The Spaniards were never able to regain control of these colonies, but the states have been nearly wrecked by their numerous quarrels among themselves. They are now in better condition, and Chile and Argentine Republic promise to become strong nations. Unfortunately, between these two there is a disputed boundary question pending, and Chile is trying to force an immediate settlement under threat of war.

Chile

The early inhabitants of Chile, called Araucanians, were brave and warlike About 1450 Peru, which enjoyed a comparatively high degree of civilization, invaded and conquered Chile, and at the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru, Chile was a Peruvian dependency.

In 1540 Pizarro sent a few Spanish soldiers and a large body of Peruvians into Chile, who subdued the country and established Santiago in 1541. The original inhabitants were never thoroughly conquered by the Spaniards, although an incessant and costly war was kept up until 1724, when a treaty was made which acknowledged the freedom of the Araucanians and defined the boundaries of their territory.

When Joseph Napoleon was made king of Spain, the Chileans, under cover of support to the dethroned monarch, revolted, formed with the La Plata provinces a confederation, and began the struggle for independence. The Chileans were overpowered by Spanish forces from Peru, and in ISI4 the Provinces of La Plata sent an army to their assistance under the command of San Martin, styled, for his success, "The Liberator." Chile was speedily freed of the Spanish forces, and in their gratitude they would have made San Martin president, but he declined in favor of General O'Higgins, who was appointed Director.

O'Higgins was a brave, able officer, of Irish descent, under whose leadership the Chileans were able to hold their ~,wn, and in 1818, with their other allies, they carried the war against the Spanish into Peru.

In 1833 a substantial constitution was framed, which has rendered them excellent service, being next to that of the United States, the oldest written constitution in the world.

In marked contrast to the usual Spanish colony on gaining its independence, Chile has had but one insurrection, that from 1885 to 1891, when the president, declaring himself dictator, was overthrown, strange as it may seem, by the moderate and conservative parties.

Mr. Egan, the American minister at Santiago, extended refuge to eighty Balmacedists after their overthrow, and by this action incurred the enmity of the congressional party and caused the attack of the Chilean mob upon the crew of the "Baltimore" October 16, 1891, by which two of the crew were killed and eighteen wounded.

The United States demanded satisfaction, and the Chileans replied in an insulting manner. Secretary Blaine pressed the matter vigorously, and January 23, 1892, they made a complete and ample apology, though with rather bad grace, and are not particularly cordial toward us yet.

Peru

Francisco Pizarro sailed from Panama December 28, 1531, with 183 men, 37 horses and three small vessels. After a voyage of about a fortnight he landed off the coast of Peru, disembarked and sent his ships back for reinforcements. They returned with 30 men and 26 more horses. With this party he undertook the conquest of a country as large as that part of the United States east of the Mississippi River, and so thickly populated that the good Las Casas, bishop of Chiapa, and the best contemporary historian, says, "In the province of Peru alone the Spaniards killed above 40,000,000 people," while it was a colony of Spain.

A volume would not suffice to tell of the wonderful civilization Pizarro found.

"Through the entire length of the empire two great military roads were built, one on the plateau, the other on the shore. The former, for nearly 2,000 miles, crossed sierras covered with snow, was thrown over ravines, or went through tunnels in the rocks; it scaled the more difficult precipices by means of stairways. Where it was possible, it was carried over the mountain clefts by filling them with masonry, or, where that could not be done, suspension bridges were used, the cables being made of osiers of maguey fibres. Some of these cables are said to have been as thick as a man and 200 feet long. Where such bridges could not be thrown across, and a stream flowed in the bottom of the mountain valley, the passage was made by ferry-boats or rafts.

As to the road itself, it was about 20 feet in width, faced with flags covered with bitumen, and had mile-stones. Our admiration at this splendid engineering is enhanced when we remember that it was accomplished without iron and gunpowder. The shore road was built on an embankment, with a clay parapet on each side, and shade trees. Where circumstances called for it, piles were used. Every five miles there was a post-house. The public couriers, as in Mexico, could make, if necessary, 200 miles a day. Of these roads Humboldt says that they were among the most useful and most stupendous executed by the hand of man. The reader need scarcely be told that there were no such triumphs of skill in Spain.

"In Cuzco, the metropolis, was the imperial residence of the Inca and the Temple of the Sun. It contained edifices which excited the amazement of the Spanish adventurers themselves - streets, squares, bridges, fortresses surrounded by turreted walls, subterranean galleries by which the garrison could reach important parts of the town. Indeed, the great roads we have spoken of might be regarded as portions of an immense system of military works spread all over the country, and having their centre at Cuzco.

The imperial dignity was hereditary, descending from father to son. His (the Inca) diadem consisted of a scarlet tasseled fringe round his brow, adorned with two feathers. He wore earrings of great weight. His dress of lama-wool was dyed scarlet, inwoven with gold and studded with gems. Whoever approached him bore a light burden on the shoulder as a badge of servitude, and was barefoot. The Inca was not only the representative of the temporal, but also of the spiritual power. He was more than supreme pontiff, for he was a descendant of the Sun, the God of the nation. He made laws, imposed taxes, raised armies, appointed or removed judges at his pleasure. He traveled in a sedan ornamented with gold and emeralds; the roads were swept before him, strewn with flowers and perfumed. His palace at Yucay was described by the Spaniards as a fairy scene. It was filled with works of Indian art; images of animals and plants decorated the niches of its walls; it had an endless labyrinth of gorgeous chambers, and here and there shady crypts for quiet retirement. Its baths were great golden bowls. It was embosomed in artificial flowers.

"The Peruvian religion ostensibly consisted of a worship of the Sun, but the higher classes had already become emancipated from such a material association, and recognized the existence of one almighty, invisible God. They expected the resurrection of the body and the continuance of the soul in a future life. It was their belief that in the world to come our occupations will resemble those we have followed here.

"An annual survey of the country, its farming and mineral products, was made, the inventory being transmitted to the government. A register was kept of births ani deaths; periodically a general census was taken. The Inca, at once emperor and pope, was enabled, in that double capacity, to exert a rigorous patriarchal rule over his people, who were treated like mere children not suffered to be oppressed, but compelled to be occupied; for, with a wordly wisdom which no other nation presents, labor was here acknowledged not only as a means, but also as an end. In Peru a man could not improve his social state; by these refinements of legislation he was brought into an absolutely stationary condition. He could become neither richer nor poorer; but it was the boast of the system that every one lived exempt from social suffering, that all enjoyed competence.

"They terraced the mountain sides, filling the terraces with rich earth. They excavated pits in the sand, surrounded them with adobe walls, and filled them with manured soil. On the low level they cultivated bananas and cassava; on the terraces above, maize and quinoa; still higher, tobacco; and above that, the potato. The whole civilized world has followed them in the cultivation of the potato. The Peruvian bark is one of the most invaluable remedies. Large tracts of North America would be almost uninhabitable without the use of its active alkaloid quinine, which actually, in no insignificant manner, reduces the percentage of mortality throughout the United States.

"Indispensably necessary to their agricultural system were their great water works. In Spain there was nothing worthy of being compared with them. The aqueduct of Condesuya was nearly 500 miles long. Its engineers had overcome difficulties in a manner that might well strike modern times with admiration. Its. water was distributed as prescribed by law; there were officers to see to its proper use. From these great water works and from their roads it may be judged that the architectural skill of the Peruvians was far from insignificant." (Draper's " Intellectual Development of Europe")

Upon the arrival of Pizarro at the capital of the Inca he was cordially received. He found well built houses of masonry and regular streets, and proceeded to dispose his forces so as to occupy the best strategic positions. Without any suspicion of treachery, Inca Atahualpa prepared to make him a visit. Upon a given signal the Inca was suddenly attacked, made prisoner, and his people slaughtered.

The Inca's Ransom

Upon his release he offered as a ransom gold enough to fill a room twenty-two feet long, seventeen feet wide, and as high as a man could reach. This enormous treasure was collected in about two months, and after the fifth belonging to the crown had been deducted there yet remained about $18,000,000 to be divided among the conquerors. The treasure secured, Pizarro at once treacherously put the Inca to death. It is gratifying to know that De Soto and a few other followers, with Pizarro, expressed their condemnation in the warmest terms.

The Royal Fifth

Such were the wonderful resources of the country that the treasure sent Charles V in 1595 from Peru and Mexico amounted to $35,000,000. The country was subjugated, but no sooner done than Pizarro quarreled with his lieutenant, Almagro, whom he condemned and put to death, only himself to fall by the weapons of assassins a little later.

Peru was for a long time the richest province of Spain in South America, and the one on which she had the strongest hold. A revolt occurred in 1780, led by the native chief, Tupac Amaru, a descendent of the Incas. It all but succeeded, and so frightened were the tyrants that the most horrible cruelty was practiced after it was suppressed. Spain had too strong a hold on Peru for her to throw off the yoke when the other South American colonies revolted, but in 1820 assistance arrived from Chile under the command of General San Martin, and the greater part of Peru fell into the hands of the patriots. Independence was formally proclaimed July 28, 1821, and San Martin assumed the title of "Protector of Peru." As soon as a congress was assembled San Martin resigned and returned to Chile.

In 1823 the Spanish forces were reinforced and oained some successes. Simon Bolivar of Venezuela came to the assistance of the Peruvians, was received with great rejoicing, and made dictator. A decisive battle took place December 9, 1824, at Ayacucho, the greatest ever fought for liberty in South America, and the Spanish power received its death blow.

Peru has had a stormy career since then, and has several times been engaged in war with her sister republics, the last, especially disastrous for her, with Chile, 1879 to 1884, from which the country has not yet fully recovered.

Colombian States

For the sake of convenience we shall treat the history of Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador under the title of the Colombian States, as their experiences with Spain were so similar. Colombia was visited by the Spanish about 1535 and in 1538 the city of Bogota was founded. Numerous Spanish colonies at once sprang up and the native population was speedily subjugated.

Peru was the richest of the Spanish possessions and there the Viceroy made his headquarters, from which lie governed the Colombian States as dependencies of Peru. Numerous rivalries between the different viceroys and their subordinates frequently arose and the condition of the colonies was not a particularl happy one.

The Colombian States were the first to set up the struggle for independence, perhaps because they were nearer to Europe and in closer communication, or because the inhabitants were better informed and had made more progress. The native population, always restless and uneasy under Spanish rule, had been mercilessly taxed to support the wars between Spain and England, and the French revolution following had a distinct influence in increasing their restlessness. In 1797 the British captured Trinidad, and keenly alive to the advantages of cutting off Spain's revenues from her American colonies that enabled her to carry on her wars with England, began quietly to incite the states to revolution. The seed fell on fertile soil, for some of the colonists had taken part in the American revolution, noticeably, Francis Miranda who, holding a commission from France, went to America in the expedition France sent to help her ally. Of course - such men would come back with ideas concerning rights and liberty well calculated to create a disturbance in colonies governed as were those of Spain.

Miranda was suspected of plotting to free his own country and for his personal safety thought it advisable to go to France. Later, an alliance between Spain and France rendered that refuge untenable and he passed over to England. While there he probably became the agent of the British government, who saw an opportunity to strike a good blow at Spain by severing the allegiance of her American colonies. He went to Trinidad in 1806, where he was joined by some Americans who sympathized with the struggle of the Spanish colonies for freedom, and at the head of about 500 volunteers, largely made up of English and American sympathizers, he landed in Venezuela. The time was not ripe and he was forced to return, but the seed was sown and in due time brought forth fruit.

The abdication of the Spanish king in 1808 and the likelihood of Napoleon's ambitious plans being realized, did much to dissipate their feeling of loyalty to the mother country, and in 1810 the Colombian States revolted and be-an their struggle for independence. The insurgent leaders were unable to combine heartily, dissensions arose, treachery penetrated everywhere, and the attempt was unsuccessful.

So great a part did personal advantage play and at so low an ebb was patriotism, that Colonel Bolivar, afterward called "The Liberator," was accused of treachery and at least surrendered his forces to the royalists without any great provocation. The soldiers deserted Miranda and he was forced to stirrender. In utter disregard for the pledge the Spanish had made him he was sent to Europe and died in prison.

One province, New Granada, still maintained its independence and thither Bolivar took his way, while the rest of the country was experiencing the usual terror of a Spanish re- conquest, The severity the conquerors used in suppressing the revolt increased rather than crushed the spirit of independence. Bolivar entered the service of New Granada, created for himself a new character, and when the time was ripe, reappeared in his native province at the head of an army. A terrible war, merciless in its practice was waged, but Bolivar's generalship succeeded and in 1813 he entered Caracas and was proclaimed "Liberator" of Venezuela and later, in 1814, "Supreme Dictator." The royalists rallied, a frightful civil war ensued and the tide swept back and forth with varying fortunes. At last in 1818 Bolivar, by the aid of French and British auxiliaries, gained several important victories and freed the states from the crown of Spain.

Bolivar, of course, became president, and the republic needed him, for the Spanish still held several fortified posts, and no one could tell at what moment the influence of the "Holy Alliance" might turn from sympathy to active support. However, in 1823, the Columbian States were in such condition that he felt free to turn his attention to the Peruvians in their struggle for freedom, and entered that province with an army in co-operation with General San Martin, the "Liberator" of Chile. Asa reward for his success he was made the popular idol of Peru and then "Dictator."

Bolivar deserves his reputation as a successful general. In the struggle with Spain he proved himself brave, able and patriotic. If, as a statesman, his head became turned, it is well to remember that he was treated like a a demi-god and exposed to temptations well calculated to try the fibre of the staunchest patriot. He certainly freed the colonies from the dominion of Spain, whatever his ultimate ambitions may have been.

He died December 17, 1830, having outlived his popularity, a bitter, disappointed man. In a letter to a friend he says: "I have been in power for nearly twenty years, from which I have gathered only a few definite results.

1. America is for us ungovernable.
2. He who dedicates his services to a revolution, plows the sea.
3. The only thing that can be done in America is to emigrate.
4. This country will inevitably fall into the hands of the unbridled rabble, and little by little become a prey to petty tyrants of all color and races.

For many years the affairs of the states were in a deplorable condition, and they showed themselves but little fitted for self-government. The confederation formed in a common cause against Spain was broken up soon after their object was accomplished, and the states set up independent governments. " The Spanish misgovernment left a legacy of bitterness and anarchy that has been the cause of much misery. Political passion ran high, and its history for generations has been a continual struggle, always more or less warlike." An insurrection is now in progress in Venezuela.

Mexico

For many centuries prior to the discovery of Mexico by the Spanish, the country had been inhabited by different tribes of Indians, some of whom possessed a high degree of civilization. Of the earlier tribes, the Toltecs, whose period ranges from the sixth to the eleventh centuries, were the furthest advanced. They built temples and cities; they had a year of 365 days to which they added twelve and one-half days at the end of every fifty-two years, thus bringing it within a small fraction of the actual length of the solar year. Their religion was mild, their laws simple and just. The Aztecs, the succeeding dominant race, were better warriors, more forceful and sanguinary. They believed in one invisible supreme God, with numerous inferior divinities. They built imposing temples to their local divinity (Mexican Mars) and offered human sacrifices before his altar. According to their traditions, one of their divinities had retired from earth, but was expected to return.

It was this superstition that rendered their conquest by the Spanish much easier; for the first appearance of the white men on the Mexican coast had filled the Montezuma with terror, because the people were expecting the return of their God, and his oracles had told him that his overthrow was at hand.

It was by accident, not by intention, that the Spaniards first beheld the shores of Mexico. Cordova, sailing from Cuba to the neighboring isles on a slaving expedition (1517) encountered severe storms, and was upriven westward until he sighted the coast of Yucatan. Reporting his discovery to the Governor of Cuba, a party under Grijalva was sent out the succeeding year, who made extensive explorations along the coast of Mexico on the Carribean side, and the stories told by the sailors on his return fired the imagination of Spanish adventurers.

The Cuban governor, Valasquez, selected one of his boldest adventurers, Hernando Cortez, and placed him at the head of an expedition for the conquest and occupation of the new country. Before the final preparations were made he became suspicious of Cortez's ambitions, and seemed so much inclined to deprive him of his command, that Cortez hastily departed without waiting to complete his preparations.

He landed in 1519 and founded Vera Cruz, established a government for the colony sufficiently to technically comply with the requirements of the Spanish law, threw off the authority of the Cuban governor,, and receiving a commission from the hands of the government he had established, scuttled his ships, and with a force consisting of about 450 Spaniards, six or seven cannon and fifteen horses, set out to conquer the powerful inland monarch of whom he had heard so much.

Bernal Diaz Del Castillo, a contemporary historian, says of Cortez:

"He was of good stature and strongly built, of a rather plain complexion and serious countenance, an excellent horseman and dexterous in the use of arms; he was something of a poet and a very good rhetorician. and, as I have been told, a Bachelor of Laws. He was very patient under insults or injuries. Some of the soldiers were at times very rude and abusive to him, but he never resented their conduct, although he had often great reason to do so. Where we had to erect a fortress, Cortez was the hardest laborer in the trenches; when we were going into battle, he was as forward as any; he was very determined and headstrong, in all business of war, not attending to any remonstrances on account of danger."

Montezuma, the Aztec Emperor of the city of Mexico, held sway over but a portion of the territory which now comprises that country, but he levied tribute of numerous other petty kings or caciques, and Cortez found them ripe for revolt. With great skill and diplomacy be attached them to his own cause, and continued his march upon the capital. The rude weapons of the natives could not contend with the armor, artillery and horses of the Spaniards, and the latter especially filled them with terror. However, in his skirmishes two horses were killed, all of them hurt and many Spaniards wounded before he reached the capital of the Montezumas, which we will allow him to describe in his own words.

"This great city (Mexico) is situated in this salt lake, and from the main land to the denser parts of it, by whichever route one chooses to enter, the distance is two leagues. There are four avenues or entrances to the city, all of which are formed by artificial causeways, two spears' length in width. The city as large as Seville or Cordova; its streets, I speak of the principal ones, are very wide and straight; some of these, and all the inferior ones, are half land and half water, and are navigated by canoes. All the streets at intervals have openings, through which the water flows, crossing from one street to another, and at these openings, some of which are very wide, there are also very wide bridges composed of large pieces of timber of great strength and well put together; on many of these bridges ten horses can go abreast. This city has many public squares, in which are situated the markets and other places for buying and selling. There is one square twice as large as that of the city of Salamanca, surrounded by porticoes, where are daily assembled more than 60,000 souls engaged in buying and selling, and where are found all kinds of merchandise that the world affords, embracing the necessaries of life, as for instance, articles of food, as well as jewels of gold and silver, lead, brass, copper, tin, precious stones, bones, shells, snails and feathers.

Every kind of merchandise is sold in a particular street or quarter assigned to it exclusively, and thus the best order is preserved. They sell everything by number or measure, at least so far we have not observed them to sell anything by weight. There is a building in the great square that is used as an audience house, where ten or twelve persons who are magistrates, sit and decide all controversies that arise in the market, and order delinquents to be punished.

"This great city contains a large number of temples, or houses for their idols, very handsome edifices, which are situated in the different districts and the suburbs. Among these temples there is one which far surpasses all the rest, whose grandeur of architectural details no human tongue is able to describe; for within its precincts, surrounded by a lofty wall, there is room enough for a town Of 500 families. Around the interior of this enclosure there are handsome edifices containing large halls and corridors, in which the religious persons attached to the temple reside.

There are full forty towers, which are lofty and well built, the largest of which has fifty steps leading to its main body, and is higher than the tower of the principal church at Seville. The stone and wood of which they are constructed are so well wrought in every part that nothing could be better done." (Cortes "Dispatches")

On reaching the city, with characteristic daring, Cortez disposed his force in such a manner as to make Montezuma practically a prisoner, and thus a hostage for the good behavior of his Mexican subjects. The supernatural awe In which the Mexicans held the Spaniards, added to the fear of their cannon and horses, terrorized the natives so that they made no effort to release their monarch. Thus Cortez took possession and governed in the name of the king whom he held captive.

He remained here for some months, when news reached him that a force sent by the Cuban governor to arrest him had reached the coast. Leaving a part of his force in Mexico under Alvarado, he proceeded by forced marches to the coast, surprised the party sent to arrest him, wounded and captured the leader, and by his brilliant personal magnetism, induced the men to renounce their allegiance to the Cuban governor and follow him in the daring conquest he painted to their eager imaginations.

Now with over 1000 soldiers at his command he returned to the relief of the garrison he had left, to find it closely besieged by the Mexicans, who had risen in revolt. Montezuma showed himself before his subjects in an endeavor to pacify them, was struck by stones and arrows and mortally wounded. A series of most desperate battles took place.

Castillo says, "I have read of the destruction of Jerusalem. but I cannot conceive that the mortality there exceeded this of Mexico. The streets, the squares, the houses and the courts were covered with dead bodies. We could not step without treading on them. The lake and the canals were filled with them and the stench was intolerable. Cortez himself was for some time ill from the effects of it."

Whichever way the Spaniards looked the place seemed to be filled with a multitude of people, content to lose thousands of Mexicans if one Spanish life might thereby be destroyed. To retreat was dangerous; to remain was certain destruction.

"The Melancholy Night"

"At all events it was decided to abandon the city that very night. Many of the common soldiers had converted their share of the prize into gold chains, collars and other ornaments which they easily carried about their persons. Much of the rich booty of the principal cavaliers had been converted into bars and wedges of solid gold. Cortez delivered the share belonging to the crown to the royal officers, assigning one of the strongest horses and a guard of soldiers. Much of the treasure was necessarily abandoned. The metal lay scattered in shining heaps along the floor, exciting the cupidity of the soldiers.

'Take what you will,' said Cortez, 'better you should have it than these Mexican hounds. Be careful not to overload yourselves; he travels safest in the dark night who travels lightest.' His own followers took heed of his counsel, but the troops of Navarez, pining for riches of which they had heard so much and hitherto seen so little, showed no such discretion, and, rushing on the treacherous spoil, they loaded themselves with as much of it as they could accommodate about their persons.

A portable bridge had been constructed to be laid over the open canals in the causeway. At midnight the gates were thrown open and the Spaniards for the last time sallied forth from the walls of the ancient fortress. A drizzling rain which fell without intermission, added to the obscurity; steadily and noiselessly as possible the Spaniards trailed their way along the great street which so lately had resounded with the tumult of battle.

But as they drew near the causeway and prepared to lay the portable bridge Indian sentinels sounded the alarm and the huge drum in the deserted temple of the War-God sent forth those solemn tones which, heard only in the seasons of calamity, vibrated through every corner of the capital.

Arrows and stones fell every moment faster and more furious till they thickened into a terrible tempest. As the last of the army crossed they endeavored to raise the portable bridge, but it stuck fast in the sides of the dike. The weight of the men and horses had lodged it so firmly in the stones and earth that it was beyond their power to dislodge it. The tidings soon spread from man to man; a cry of despair arose which for a moment drowned all noise of conflict; all means of retreat were cut off; order and subordination were at an end; intense danger produced intense selfishness; each thought only of his own life; pressing forward they trampled down the weak and the wounded, heedless whether it were friend or foe; the leading files, urged on by the rear, were crowded on the brink of the gulf and dashed into the water; some succeeded in swimming their horses across; others failed; some who reached the opposite bank were overturned in the ascent and rolled headlong with their steeds back into the lake.

Above the combatants arose a wild and discordant clamor in which shouts of vengeance were mingled with groans of agony, with invocation of the saints and the Blessed Virgin, and with the screams of the women, for there were several women, both native and Spaniards, who had accompanied the Christian camp. Those fared best, as the General had predicted, who traveled lightest, and many were the unfortunate wretches who, weighted down with the fatal gold they loved so well, were buried with it in the salt floods of the lake. Cortez with his gallant comrades, Olid, Morla, Sandoval, and a few others, kept in advance. The first gray of the morning was now coming over the waters. It showed the hideous confusion of the scene which had been shrouded in the obscurity of night. Cortez and his companions were compelled to plunge again into the lake, though all did not escape.

Alvarado, unhorsed, stood on the brink for a moment hesitating what to do. He had but a second for thought, but despair gave him unusual energy; he was a man of powerful frame, and setting his long lance firmly on the rocks which strewed the bottom of the lake, he sprang forward with all his might and cleared the wide gap at a leap. To this day the name 'Alvarado's leap,' given to the spot, still commemorates an exploit which rivaled those of the demi-gods of fable.

Cortez and his companions now rode forward. A few of the enemy hung on their rear or annoyed them by occasional flights of arrows from the lake. What a spectacle did they present! Their shattered mail, their tattered garments, dripping with the salted ooze, showing through their rents many a bruise and ghastly wound, their bright arms soiled, their proud crests and banners gone; the baggage, artillery, spoil all. in short, that constitutes the pride and panoply of glorious war-forever lost.

Cortez looked wistfully at their thin and disordered ranks, sought in vain for many a familiar face, and missed more than one dear companion who had stood side by side with him through all the perils of the conquest. The sight was too much for him, He covered his face with his hands and the tears which trickled down revealed too plainly the anguish of his soul." (Prescott's " Conquest of Mexico")

In a nearly famished condition Cortez reached the principal city of one of his allies. Reinforcements reaching him from Vera Cruz, he made another attack upon the city, which, after a most obstinate defense and terrible slaughter, was captured. The least of the estimates places the Aztec loss at 120,000. The spirit of the people was now broken, and Cortez became governor in 1522.

Spanish intrigue played its usual part, and after a time Cortez was recalled, treated with marked coldness by Charles V, and died in 1547 in obscurity and disgrace.

The country was subsequently ruled by the able Mendoza as viceroy until 1550. Under his administration colleges were founded, money coined and the first printin- press in the new world introduced, from which the first book printed in America was issued. (15 -6.) Upon the accession of Philip II to the Spanish throne, viceroys of less merit were appointed, and the condition of all the colonies sensibly declined. Notwithstanding the usual Spanish incapacity for colonial administration, the natural resources of Mexico were so great as to make it second only to Peru.

When Napoleon, in 1808, forced the Spanish monarch to abdicate and appointed Joseph Bonaparte king of Spain, the chain of loyalty binding Mexico to Spain was perceptibly weakened, and under the leadership of a few daring spirits, they began, in 1810, the struggle for freedom. After an unsuccessful struggle for ten years, the leaders were either killed, captured or driven from the country, and in 1820 the Spanish authority appeared fully re- established. Curiously enough, one of the Royalist officers, Iturbide, to whose soldierly qualities the defeat of the rebels had been in a large measure due, was destined to become first ruler of the independent state.

The Spanish government having refused to recognize the treaty with the insurgents with which peace was secured, Iturbide placed himself at the head of the revolutionists and May, 1822, was declared emperor. His administration lasted less than a year, and he was overthrown by the republican element under the leadership of Santa Anna, later famous as president of Mexico during its war with the United States. A constitution modeled somewhat after our own was adopted, General Victoria made first president of the republic and the independence of the new nation recognized by the United States in 1829.

About this time the presidential election resulted in a civil war, and Santa Anna became the controlling, spirit of the nation. The history of Mexico for the next dozen years is but a recital of insurrections fomented by different ambitious leaders.

Texas, then a Mexican State, had about 23,000 population, 20,000 of whom were made up of colonists from other nations. Of the colonists, 13,000 belonged to settlements founded by Moses Austin and his son, General Stephen F. Austin. When the republic of Mexico, by the decree of September 15, 1829, began the emancipation of all the slaves within its boundaries, the American settlers refused to obey the decree. The national anthorities were not in a position to enforce it, and the Texans gained one point.

Foreseeing danger, Mexico prohibited the further emigration of Americans, but this was "locking the stable after the horse was stolen," for the colony had as a leader General Sam Houston, who came there for the express purpose of separating it from Mexico and with whose plans it is supposed Jackson, then President, was familiar.

In 1835 Santa Anna attempted to reduce his rebellious State to order, and collisions of armed forces took place, in which the Americans usually had the advantage. On March 2, 1836, a committee of sixty Texans, two of whom were of Mexican nationality, signed a formal declaration of independence, and under the leadership of Houston won their decisive victory at San Jacinto, April 21, 1836, made a prisoner of Santa Anna himself, who, under compulsion, acknowledged their independence and promised that the Mexican Congress should ratify it; but this Congress refused to do.

The Texans elected General Houston their first president and the United States recognized their independence in 1837, which Texas maintained until 1845, when it was annexed to the United States.

The boundaries between Texas and Mexico had never been definitely settled, and the United States espousing the Texan claims it necessarily brought on war with Mexico. The war closed in 1848, the United States gaining thereby all the territory from California to Texas inclusive, though it is needless to say that Spain, France and England looked upon the transaction with ill-concealed displeasure.

Another period of history made up by a recital of insurrections, brings us to 1861 and the administration of Juarez, who was now President as the result of a revolution, during the progress of which Mexican debts to foreign nations had been repudiated. Spain, France and England seized this opportunity, while the United States were engaged with domestic trouble, to put forth their claims for losses sustained by their subjects in Mexico. Spain landed troops in October of '61 and France and England in January of '62. The Spanish and British claims were not serious and were settled by negotiation; their forces were then withdrawn. The French army remained and tacitly formed an alliance with the disaffected party of Mexico. They refused to treat with President Juarez and war was declared in 1862.

After varying struggles Juarez was forced to flee and the French established a regency. A convention was held under French auspices, which by a vote Of 250 to 2o decided upon a monarchy under a Roman Catholic Emperor. The crown was tendered Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, who accepted it and arrived in Mexico June 12, 1864. The United States had protested against the action of the French, but was herself engaged in civil war. Juarez, with a few adherents, fled to the Rio Grande. After the establishment of peace at home, Sheridan was sent to Texas with a large army, and under implied pressure from the United States the French soldiers were withdrawn. They were the support of Maximilian, who was soon defeated, captured and shot June 19, 1867. Juarez was made President and re-elected in 1871, the first instance in Mexican history of a President serving his full term.

Under President Diaz, Mexico has reached a fair degree of prosperity.

The Philippine Islands

The northern division of the Malay peninsula, lying between 5 degrees and 19 degrees N. latitude and next to Cuba, the most valuable colonial possession of Spain.

Authorities do not agree as to the number of them, and they are variously estimated at from 1,000 to 1,400The total area is estimated at 116,000 square miles, and the population somewhere from seven to eight millions. Between four and five hundred of the islands are inhabited.

The largest of the islands are Luzon, area 40,000 square miles, and Mindanao, 12,600 square miles.

This group is of volcanic origin, and has a range of highlands running through from north to south, the highest of which is about 6,000 feet, and some of the peaks are still active volcanoes.

The coast line is much broken and indented by the mouths of several deep, navigable rivers, affording good harbors. Earthquakes are frequent and preclude tall, substantial buildings. The islands are also swept by fierce tropical storms and are within the belt of the monsoons.

The wild animals indigenous to the islands are the antelope, fox, wild cat, monkey, and in the rivers is found the cayman, a species of alligator.

The islands are rich in natural resources, and among the minerals are gold, copper, iron, lead, mercury, sulphur and coal.

The early policy of Spain allowed no trade with foreigners, and the Spanish colonies of America were allowed to send but one ship a year.

History

"The islands were discovered by Magellan, in 1521, and Manila, the capital, was founded by Legaspi in 1571, and since that time they have been under the dominion of Spain. Their conquest and retention was in marked contrast to the usual Spanish methods of dealing with conquered people, methods of which Cortez and Pizarro are the chief exponents. Legaspi, with six Augustinians and a handful of soldiers, accomplished the wonderful work of conquest. Without greed for gold and without any exhibition of cruelty or persecution, these devoted men labored among the docile people until they won their confidence, so that the islands were seized with little bloodshed and no massacre or depopulation. The name " Islas Filipas " was given by Legaspi in 1567. Contests with frontier rebellious tribes, attacks by pirates, earthquakes and typhoons serve to break up the monotony of an otherwise uneventful history.

"Manila was captured by the English under Draper and Cornish in 1762, and ransomed for $5,000,000, but was restored in 1764. The present insurrection in the islands was put down with an iron hand, and many atrocities were committed, so that it is little wonder that many of the inhabitants look upon the arrival of the Americans as a deliverance.

"The Philippine Islands are peculiar in having three seasons -- a cold, a hot and a wet. The first extends from November to February or March. The winds are northerly, and woolen clothing and a fire are desirable, the sky is clear and the air bracing, and Europeans in this strange clime consider it the pleasantest time of the year. The hot season lasts from March to June, and the heat becomes oppressive and thunder storms of terrific violence are frequent. During July, August, September and October, the rain comes down in torrents, and large tracts of the lower country are flooded.

"The population of the Philippines is 7,670,000; the capital, Manila, having 54,062 inhabitants. There is a small Spanish resident population and about 100,000 Chinese, in whose hands are the principal industries. The native inhabitants are mostly of the Malay race. The government is administered by a governor-general and a captain-general and the forty-three provinces are ruled by governors, alcades or commandants, according to their importance or position.

"The estimated revenue of the islands in 1894-95 was $13,500,000 and the expenditure $13,200,000. There is an export duty on tobacco and nearly every article imported is taxed. The chief products are sugar, hemp, coffee and indigo, and there are large coal fields which are now being opened, so that it is expected that 5,000 tons of coal per month may be mined. The imports in 1896 were about $12,000,000 and the exports $20,500,000. There are 70 miles of railway on the islands and 720 miles of telegraph.

"Manila lies on the western side of the island of Luzon and is about 600 miles from Hong-Kong. It has one of the most spacious and beautiful harbors in the world. The shores are low and inland can be seen the outline of mountains. The city of Manila resembles a dilapidated fortress surrounded by stone walls 300 years old. There is also a wide, shallow moat. The gates are never closed and it is doubtful if the city could make any defense. There is also an old fort. Several creeks branch off from the landlocked bay and afford a means of communication with the suburbs. These creeks are crossed by innumerable bridges, and canoes thread their way through these narrow water-ways, which somewhat resemble a tropical Venice. Around the walls and the edge of the bay is a fashionable drive lined with almond trees. It is here that the well-to-do inhabitants walk, drive and meet their friends. Of nearly 300,000 people in the province there are not more than 5,000 Spaniards. One of the most curious sights to the traveler who comes from China are the large two-wheel drays drawn by so-called water buffaloes. They are guided by a ring through their nose to which is attached a cord leading back to the driver, who either mounts on his back or rides on the shafts. The weight of the load is borne on the neck by means of a yoke. The beasts are docile and their chief delight seems to be to wallow in the mud and to submerge themselves so that only the nose is out of the water. The water buffalo is particularly valuable to the inhabitants as a beast of burden, as it can drag a plow and can walk while knee deep in the mud. The milk of the female is very generally used instead of cow's milk, but its meat is unfit for food.

"In the two best streets of Manila there are excellent stores in which goods of all kinds can be purchased at moderate prices, many of the merchants being Chinese. The churches must have been imposing buildings years ago before they were shaken and in some cases wrecked by earthquakes. They contain no works of art of any value. The inhabitants are very faithful to their church and the archbishop possesses almost unlimited influence with the inhabitants. It has often been said, if the priests were taken away, the natives would be ungovernable.

"The dwelling houses in Manila are constructed with a view of shutting out the intense heat of the summer. The houses are rarely more than two stories in height, owing to the ravages of earthquakes. Glass is of course unknown, as the earthquakes would shiver every pane. There is coal in abundance in the Philippine Islands, as already stated, and the streets of Manila would undoubtedly be lighted with coal gas if it were not for the fact that gas pipes would be destroyed in the unstable soil. Of course, accidents are of frequent occurrence with kerosene, but as the natives' houses are very inexpensive, their loss by fire is easily made good.

"Strange to say, life in the old city does not present many points of interest to the traveler, for the streets are narrow and the houses solid and gloomy. It is a marked contrast to the business-like cities of South America. The Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula look down upon those born in the islands, so that class distinctions are very closely drawn.

This has resulted in the failure to make political combinations. Hatred and jealousy of the foreigner are carried to the extreme limits, the Chinese coming in for a large share of their disfavor. The theatres are poor, concerts are rare and there is no library, and their amusements are mostly limited to hearing the band play, attending balls on Sundays and cockfights. The cockpits are licensed by the government, and though the betting is limited by law, the citizens will not hold to it. The revenues of the islands are furnished by direct taxes on every Indian, half-breed and Chinese, and the export and import duties that have already been referred to.

"The dress of the natives is exceedingly picturesque and is never adopted by the Spanish. Cigar makers in and around the city of Manila number 22,000 and they are all girls and women with the exception of 1,500 men. They present a picturesque appearance with their native costumes and huge hats intended to protect them from the rays of the sun. They make their cigars squatting on their heels or sitting on bamboo stools two inches high. They frequently come from considerable distances, going back and forth in boats. Tobacco always has been and probably will continue to be the most important product of the Philippines; and according to the old laws, the Indians were compelled to raise tobacco in certain regions which were not adapted to growing it, even to the exclusion of other crops, but in 1883 the laws were repealed, and the result was the securing of finer tobacco and better cigars, for they are now made at a higher rate.

The wants of the natives are few and are easily supplied. They live along the banks of the rivers in huts made of bamboo and cane thatched with palm leaves. Some of the views in the suburbs of Manilla are enchanting." (Scientific American, May 7, 1898)

The Philippine Islands have never had the advantage of a good government. Imports are heavily taxed and Spain has derived an enormous income from the islands. Insurrections have been frequent, but oweing to the poverty of equipment of the natives who engaged in them, usually ended in quick failure. In 1896 the present insurrection was inaugurated. The military resources of the Spanish were insufficient to suppress the revolt, and not until the government promised greatly needed reforms and amnesty for the insurgents was any progress made.

"The Spanish governor-general announced that the islands had been 'Pacified'; and thereupon spat upon his own promises and began a system of persecution against the 'rebels' which, in cruelty and torture, outdid anything mankind has ever heard of, barring only the Spanish inquisition. The prisoners were put on the rack, had their limbs lacerated, and in some instances had their eyes put out, their tongues torn out and their cars cutoff. Friars, of which the islands are full, clothed in the garb of religion, but disowned by the regular priests of the church, sanctioned these horrible punishments and confiscated the pitiful belongings of the victims for the benefit of their monasteries.

"That such unspeakable actions and breach of faith were resented by the people is not strange. One uprising followed another, and finally the people instituted a provisional revolutionary government, under the leadership of Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo, a patriotic, able and self-sacrificing native Malay of the highest type. Aguinaldo was twice betrayed by the Spaniards with promises of reform which were never kept. He saw his brothers butchered and his country robbed into poverty. Last December Don Primo de Rivera, the Spanish governor of the islands, made peace with the rebel chieftain and then sought to deprive him of liberty and life. Aguinaldo managed to escape, however, and traveled in disguise from Singapore to Hong Kong, being assisted in his efforts to reach a neutral port by Spencer Pratt, the American consul- general at Singapore. In Hong Kong he placed himself at the disposal of Commodore Dewey and returned to the Philippines with him."

Porto Rico

Porto Rico lies about 1,000 miles from Havana, and is the fourth in size of the West India islands. Its greatest length from east to west is 108 miles and from north to south 37 miles, with an area of 3,550 square miles. A range of mountains reaching nearly 4,000 feet at the highest point runs the entire length of the island. The rain-carrying winds for Porto Rico come chiefly from the north, and when they strike the high range of hills, or mountains, in the interior, the greater part of their moisture is condensed and falls upon the northern slope, so that water-shed has numerous small rivers.

The greater part of the island is north of the range, and well watered, but south of the range irrigation is necessary. The general surface is made up of rolling hills with rich intervening valleys. It furnishes excellent pasturage for large numbers of horses and cattle, and these constitute a large part of the wealth of the inhabitants. Nature apparently set out to make Porto Rico one of the finest places on earth, and but for the interference of Spanish rule seemed in a fair way to succeed. The island presents a beautiful appearance, and has an excellent tropical climate, said to be the most healthful of the Antilles. The climate may be divided into two seasons, the wet and the dry. The dry months are from November to April; the wet are from May to November; and from July to October it is visited by frequent and severe tropical hurricanes.

Sugar was formerly the chief agricultural product, but as the sugar industry became depressed the planters turned to the raising of bananas and the production of coffee. There are many coffee plantations on the islands, and the soil and climate seem particularly well adapted to that plant.

The rivers are small, and only navigable for vessels of moderate tonnage for five or six miles near their mouths. The north coast is subject to a particularly heavy and disagreeable ground swell, capable of considerable violence. There are not many safe harbors. Guancia and Hovas on the south coast and San Juan on the north are the best.

The harbor of San Juan is one of the finest in the West Indies, and is nearly as good as that of Havana. It is large and deep, but the coral formation makes it shallow near the shore, and suitable wharves for the largest vessels have not yet been built. In 1895 over one thousand vessels entered San Juan harbor.

The chief cities are San Juan, the capital, with a population of 28,000 (English Statesman's Year Book says 23414 in 1887), Ponce, 37,575 ; San German, 30,146.

By their last official census, Porto Rico contained 8,113,937 people, over 300,000 of whom were negroes.

In 1895 its exports amounted to $15,799,000, of which coffee and sugar furnished about two-fifths its value, and its imports to $17,446,000. The total revenues for the same year were $5,454,958, and the expenditures $3,905,667.

It is fairly well represented in mineral products, gold, copper, iron, lead and coal being found; but little attention, however, has been given to its mining resources, and its industries are almost wholly agricultural, the chief of which are sugar, coffee, molasses, rum, tobacco, livestock and timber.

History

Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1493. The Spaniards took possession of it in 1509, and in a few years their characteristic method of colonization had exterminated the entire native population, estimated to have numbered 700,000.

The English, under Drake, captured and sacked the capital in 1595, and three years later it was visited with like results by the Duke of Cumberland. Since then it has successfully withstood the Dutch in 1615 and the English in 1678 and 1797. In 1820 an unsuccessful attempt was made to throw off the Spanish yoke. Discontent exists there to-day, but as Spain was there at present an army of 40,000 men, the would-be insurgents are completely overawed.

Porto Rico was made a province of Spain in 1870, and given its premier and House of Representatives, but these are controlled by a native Spanish "ring," and are in no degree representative of the people.

San Juan is surrounded by a wall of solid masonry from 50 to 100 feet high. It has also, like Havana, a Morro Castle (round Moorish tower) situated at a considerable elevation above the harbor, from which a plunging fire on an attacking fleet could be, delivered. Until a few months ago the greater part of the artillery in' the fortifications about the harbor pointed toward the land as the garrison were apprehensive of an uprising.

Quite a good many Krupp guns were sent them some time ago from Spain, but it is doubtful if they are all well mounted yet. The old forts of masonry suffered severely in the attack of Admiral Sampson, and nearly all the heavy guns were dismounted, but if manned by an energetic garrison a greater part of the damages could probably be easily repaired.

San Juan under present circumstances is not a healthful town, for it has nothing approaching modern drainage, and if it were not located on a hillside would be even more sickly than it is.

Why Spain Lost Her Colonies

Spain once had a well-recognized claim to possessions in America whose aggregate area was nearly twice that of all Europe. If she had shown the wisdom in colonial administration that England has displayed for the past hundred years, she might easily have dictated terms to all the world.

Three words explain the secret of her loss and consesequent downfall: BIGOTRY! GREED! CRUELTY!

"Spanish Mercy"

With a fatal short-sightedness she drove from her dominions the Moors and Jews, who were her bankers, physicians, scholars, artisans and agriculturists. The Netherlands, the only colony that could have supplied their loss for her, was brought to the verge of ruin by eighty years of the most horrible war that history records.

Ignores Commerce

Apparently wholly blind to the advantage of building up a trade with the new world that would have been worth to her many times more than the mines of gold and silver, inexhaustible though they seemed, she paid almost no attention to their natural resources other than gold and silver, and to the mining of these bent all her energies, and sacrificed the lives of the natives of every land she conquered.

Cruelty to Natives

It is estimated that the population of Cuba at the time of its discovery ranged from one to three millions. Under Spanish administration, in forty years the entire native population had practically disappeared, and their places were taken by negroes.

Las Casas says, "The Indians of Havana, seeing there was no remedy left, began to take refuge in the deserts and mountains, to secure themselves if possible from death. Some strangled themselves in despair; parents hung themselves together with their children to put the speedier end to their misery by death. I saw with my own eyes about six thousand children die in the space of three or four months, their parents being forced to abandon them, being condemned to the mines."

And Cuba was not the exception, but rather the rule; 120,000 Mexicans are said to have perished in the capture of the City of Mexico alone, and more than half a million, directly or indirectly, in the conquest of Cortes. Her treatment of the natives in the lands she discovered was horrible in the extreme.

"By millions upon millions whole races of nations were remorselessly cut off. The Bishop of Chiapa affirms that more than fifteen millions were exterminated in his time. From Mexico and Peru a civilization that might have instructed Europe was crushed out. Is it for nothing that Spain has been made a hideous skeleton among living nations, a warning spectacle to the world? Had not her punishment overtaken her, men would surely have said, 'There is no retribution; there is no God." (Draper, Intellectual Development of Europe)

Colonial Administration

Her method of dealing with her colonies set a premium on theft, intrigue and treachery, and the dagger of the disappointed assassin was a constant menace to the ambitious and successful leader. The natives were studiously debarred from any part in the administration of their affairs. The offices were awarded to those who could pay the biggest bribes, which they in turn must wring by extortionate tax of fiendish cruelty from the people over whom they were placed. Allowed no part in self-government, what could be expected of such colonies when the despotic yoke was once thrown off ?

"Wherever a popular government succeeded in establishing itself for a few weeks, the first act of the legislature was invariably to vote to its own members enormous salaries. Atrocities at which humanity shudders were committed by either side which happened to obtain a momentary ascendancy; thousands were butchered, not in the excitement of battle, but after fight no, had ceased. The capture of a town was usually followed by an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants.

The republican governments, as they were called, set up by the liberators, were in reality military despotisms, which, instead of devoting themselves to the establishment of something like permanent institutions, quarreled with their neighboring peoples in the same condition as themselves, and commenced unprincipled wars of aggression before they had themselves fairly escaped from the throes of revolution. Peru and Buenos Ayres both commenced a series of such wars in the first moments of their political existence. Colombia was the scene of a dozen revolutions and counter-revolutions, none of which resulted in keeping their officers in power beyond a few months at a time, and at last split up into three independent republics, which carried on a furious internecine struggle amongst themselves. Chile, within four years, underwent two revolutions, which were succeeded by a prolonged civil war. In Central America a Republic was declared, but a civil war broke out within a few months of its establishment, in which one-half of the population gave no quarter to the other half. Every part of the vast district which was once under the domain of Spain was in the early part of the present century the theatre of endless and meaningless petty wars, got up usually by some adventurer who, having scraped together a few pistols for the purpose of bribing a handful of mutinous and half-starved soldiers to revolt, rallied around him a few of the lowest rabble and set forth on his own account to burn, devastate and destroy the unhappy land. It would be useless to give any detailed account of these frightful scenes.

Each revolution originated in Spanish oppression and wickedness, but when the yoke was thrown off the emancipated people found that they had miscalculated their powers, that long misgovernment had banished public spirit, bravery, constancy, out of the land, and had left them fit only to remain in slavery. Nothing but such a government could have formed such a population, nothing but such a population would have tolerated such a government." (History Studies -- John Hopkins University)

Next: Chapter 6: Cuba