Cuba lies almost at our door. The cities of Havana and Matanzas in the northwestern portion are less than one hundred miles from the Florida Keys, and the island in its nearest part approaches within eighty-six miles of Key West.

The extreme length of the Island is about 760 miles, its width varies from 120 miles in its widest part in the east to about thirty miles at its narrowest part, from Havana south. In shape, Cuba is somewhat like a fish, with Santiago de Cuba for its right eye and its tail curved around in the form of a crescent from the Florida Keys. Cuba lies south of Pennsylvania and extends a little farther east and west than that state and is almost as large, its area, together with its numerous small islands adjacent, being approximately 45,000 square miles, or about one-fourth that of all Spain. It is separated on the north from Florida proper by Florida Strait, 130 miles wide, on the east from Haiti by the Windward Passage, forty-eight miles wide, and on the south from Jamaica by a portion of the Caribbean Sea, ninety miles wide, and on the west from Yucatan, Mexico, by Yucatan Channel, 130 miles wide. Nearly all of Cuba is north of the twentieth parallel of north latitude, and Santiago de Cuba is nearly due south of Philadelphia, and Havana south of Cleveland.

Surface

A chain of mountains extends throughout the whole length of Cuba. These are highest in the east, reaching a height of about 8,320 feet in the celebrated "Blue Peak," some fifty miles west of Santiago de Cuba. In the eastern portion of the island there are numerous smaller chains branching off from the central range and farther west are isolated peaks and groups. The mountains of the province of Santiago seeing to have a submarine connection with the highlands of Jamaica and Haiti, as is evidenced by the simultaneous occurrence of earthquake phenomena. The lowland practically surrounds the island, being in many places a flat salt marsh, rising gradually towards the interior where the great sugar plantations are to be found, a little higher succeeded by the tobacco belt; on the slopes of the mountains the grazing and farming lands are found, and above these the forests.

Tons of salt are produced annually in the salt marshes by the natural evaporation of the water. The same fossil animals are found that exist in the corresponding formation in the United States, and the rock formation is of the same character and degree of inclination.

Rivers and Lakes

With the long watershed it is impossible for Cuba to have large rivers. Though not long, they discharge a considerable amount of water, as the rainfall is heavy.

Cuba has few lakes, and some of them instead of being drained by rivers, have several rivers flowing into them with no apparent outlet. On the northern coast of Puerto Principe is a little bay, Sabinal, into which the river Maximo empties. This spot is of historical interest because it is supposed that here, October 27, 1492, Columbus landed.

Climate

The seasons of Cuba are divided into two, wet and dry. The months of May, June, July, August and September, comprise the first season. The annual rainfall is about 40 inches, the rain occurring usually in the afternoon. There are 104 rainy days in the year, but it is said that there are less than twenty days a year on the average when it rains both in the forenoon and afternoon. The annual average temperature of Havana is about 78 degrees, for the hottest month, August, the average is about 82 degrees. If it were not for the high humidity, oftentimes reaching 85% the heat would not seem oppressive. Hurricanes are frequent and sometimes disastrous, although in this respect Cuba is better off than most of the West India Islands.

The climate during the dry season is delightful. A remarkable feature of the atmosphere of Cuba is its extreme clearness. Objects can be seen at a long distance; the stars are especially distinct; sunsets are brilliant, but of very brief duration. Except in the forests, the stars usually furnish sufficient light to enable one to travel by night. A tropical climate is found along the low coast line, while back from the coast, as it rises in elevation, the temperature more nearly resembles that of the Southern States. Havana is said to be an excellent place for those suffering from bronchial or pulmonary troubles, as the extremes of temperature are not great. Frosts are sometimes felt in the highlands of the interior.

The coast line belt in general is but little raised above the sea, wet throughout the greater part of the year and liable to the numerous floods and inundations characteristic of the tropics. It is here, in connection with bad sanitary measures, that their terrible fevers find a prolific culture bed.

The interior is higher and better, but only about one-third of the soil is cultivated, and one-half of the island is still covered with extensive forests. The tropical heat, the heavy rainfall and the great amount of decaying vegetable matter give rise to dangerous fevers, which make a campaign in these Jungles greatly to be dreaded by soldiers not acclimated. Spain's losses in this respect have been frightful.

Soil

The soil of Cuba, is in general, extremely fertile, although highly productive tracts may be succeeded by barren ones. As frosts are unknown in Cuba except in the highlands, two crops of rice and corn can be grown in one year. The famous "red earth," a soil rich in iron, especially well fitted for the cultivation of sugar cane and coffee, is pretty generally distributed.

Mineral Products

Cuba has some excellent copper mines, the richest about twelve miles from Santiago, where several grades of the ore are found. Gold also appears in some portions of the island, and iron ore, from which an excellent quality of steel can be made, is mined in the province of Santiago de Cuba.

Many varieties of marble are found in the island, and the marble of the "Isle of Pines" is especially remarkable for its fine quality. Bituminous coal of an excellent quality also appears in many parts of the island. Near the coast it is " exceedingly soft" and in a viscous state. There are 138 iron mines; two mines near Santiago are operated by American companies.

Agricultural Products

The condition of Cuba has not been such as to bring foreign capital to aid in the development of its mining resources and its agricultural products, the chief of which is sugar, far exceed in value those of its mines. Sugar cane was early introduced into the island, at least before 1600. In addition to the losses due to insurrections the sugar planters have had to compete with beet sugar. In 1879 Cuba and Porto Rico sent to Great Britain sugar to the amount of more than $6 milllion. In 1892, the production had fallen in value to $46,000.

Consul-general Williams said that for the quarter ending March 1896, the United States secured 96 7/10% of the sugar shipped from Cuba. Tobacco of a world-famous quality is indigenous in Cuba, the tobacco plantations of Pinar del Rio being especially famous. Coffee is also one of the valuable productions. It was formerly chiefly grown in the West Indies in the island of Santo Domingo, but when the revolution occurred there, it gave a great stimulus to the coffee plantations of Cuba, large numbers of the inhabitants of Santo Domingo fleeing to Cuba for safety and establishing magnificent coffee plantations there. The ravages of war and the exactions of taxes have almost wiped out the coffee industry in Cuba.

All the usual tropical fruits are produced in large quantities in Cuba, the pineapple, plantain, banana, orange and fig grow abundantly and the lowlands along the coast produce an excellent quality of sea island cotton. The dense forests covering the highlands of the interior are in themselves mines of wealth, cedar, granadillo, ebony and mahoghany growing in abundance. These woods are so lightly esteemed that it is said mahoghany is often used as ties for the railroad.

With a stable government that would warrant the induction of foreign capital, the natural resources of the island are sure to be enormously developed and the Cuba of the future is likely to excite our admiration.

Coasts

The coast of Cuba is difficult and dangerous of navigation, fringed as it is by coral reefs, islands and shoals. More than half of the circumference of the island is protected in this way. Add to the dangers of this formation the tropical hurricanes peculiar to this region and the difficulties of a blockading fleet are at once apparent. At different places along the coast these obstructions become well-marked breakwaters extending for miles, one, the "Red Banks," on the coast of Pinar del Rio, another from Cardenas west of Matanzas to Nuevitas, the seaport of Puerto Principe, and on the southern coast one from Manzanillo to Trinidad, and yet another from Cienfuegos to almost the western extremity of the island.

At the mouths of some of the rivers are treacherous, shifting bars. Two hundred years ago a Spanish fleet was caught within such a harbor, a violent storm arose, the bar shifted before the fleet could escape and the vessels were abandoned.

Between these fringes and the coast proper are numerous channels navigable for light-draft vessels when directed by skilled pilots. It is an ideal locality for filibustering and blockade running ventures. In general, the coast fronted by these natural breakwaters is low and marshy, not much above the level of the sea, and the scene of constant conflict between the ocean and the land. In time these marshes will be reclaimed and become a part of the most productive region of the island.

Where the shore is not fringed with these obstructions to navigation, the coast is bold, rugged, and affords numerous fine harbors. The entrance to these harbors is usually high, narrow and easily defended. The best ones on the northern coast, beginning at the western end, are Bahia Honda, Cabanas, Mariel, Havana, Matanzas, Gibara, Nipe and Baracoa. On the south are Cienfuegos, Trinidad, Santiago -de Cuba and Guantanamo.

Isle of Pines

The largest island adjacent to the Cuban coast, almost directly south of Havana, with an area of about 800 square miles and a population of 2,000. It was originally used as a penal colony. The island has some rich mineral resources; beautiful marble in numerous varieties is produced there and the forests contain a wealth of mahogany, cedar, pine and other woods. Among its minerals are iron, silver and mercury.

The village of Santa Fe, in the interior of the island, might easily become a famous health resort on account of its wonderful hot springs. Its principal town, Nueva Gerona, has about 1,000 inhabitants and is some seventy miles from Bacabano on the southern coast of Cuba, the latter communicating by rail with Havana, and for a time blockade runners transacted a brisk business between these ports.

Provinces

Cuba is divided into six provinces, each with a capital city of the same name as the province.

Pinar del Rio (pee'-nar-del-ree-o.)

Pinar del Rio is in the westernmost end of the island and extends to within 15 or 20 miles of the city of Havana. Its total population is about 231,000, and its capital city is Pinar del Rio, with a population of 5,500. It is connected with Havana by railroad. Pinar del Rio is divided into four districts, Guanjay, population about 60,000; Guane, population about 56,000; Pinar del Rio, about 70,000; and San Cristobal, about 45,000. Its northern coast is broken and mountainous and watered by numerous small rivers. In the south the slope is more gradual and the soil fertile until it approaches the marshy portion along the coast.

It is on the southern slope that the tobacco fields are situated that have made this province famous. The crop is so highly esteemed that it is bought up in advance by speculators and always commands fancy prices. This province also produces sugar, coffee, rice, corn, cotton and tropical fruits, although these are not so important as its tobacco crop. Some copper is also mined here.

Havana (Ha-ba'-na)

Havana, the second province, is about 65 miles in extreme length and 30 in its narrowest part. Its total population is about 375,444, and its capital city is Havana with a population of 200,000 Havana is divided into six districts, BAucal, population 43,709; Guanabacoa, 32,344; Guines, 45,577; Havana, 213,500; Mariamio, 7,352; San Antonio de los Barros, 32,961. It is the chief manufacturing province of the island, is rich in the usual agricultural products of tropical regions, and some bituminous coal is mined here.

Matanzas

Matanzas, the third province, is about go miles in its extreme length and 65 miles in width. Its total population is about 253,408, and the capital city is Matanzas with a population of about 50,000. Matanzas is divided into four districts, Alphonso XII, population 33,887; Cardenas, 53,882; Colon, 79,390; and Matanzas, 86,249. No province is better worked or more thoroughly developed. It is the center of the sugar production and the other agricultural products are important; an excellent quality of peat is produced and mines of copper and coal are worked.

Santa Clara (San-ta Klara.)

Santa Clara was once called Las Cinco Vilas (Five Towns), because Diego Velazquez, the lieutenant of Columbus, laid the foundation of five towns within its boundaries. It is about 200 miles in extreme length and 80 miles in width. Its total population is about 166,671, and the capital city is Santa Clara with a population of 34,635. Santa Clara is divided into three districts, Cienfuegos, population 72,187; Juan de los Remedios, 15,358; Sagua la Granda, 79, 126.

It was one of the first settled parts of the island and is probably the richest. It produces all the products of the tropical regions, and in addition, some of the temperate zone grown on the sides of the gradual rising slopes of its mountains. Its mineral wealth is not to be despised, producing as it does, gold, silver, copper and asphalt.

Puerto Principe (pwer-to Pren'-se-pay)

Puerto Principe, the fifth province, is about 150 miles in extreme length and 75 miles wide. Its total population is 124,077, and the capital city is Puerto Principe with a population of 40,679. This province is divided into two districts, Moron, population 57,620; Puerto Principe, 66,467. Puerto Principe is the wildest and least cultivated part of the island. The greater part of it is still covered by dense forests, affording with its broken surface excellent hiding places for those engaged in guerrilla warfare, and it has been the scene of numerous incipient insurrections. It is within this province that the insurgents fixed their provisional capital.

Santiago de Cuba (San-te-a-go day Koo-ba.)

Santiago de Cuba, the sixth province, is nearly 250 miles in extreme length from Cape Maysi to Cape Cruz, and from Cape Cruz to the northernmost part of the province about 120 miles. Its total population is about 195,336 and the capital city is Santiago de Cuba, with a population of 45,000. This province is divided into five districts, Baracoa, 18,057; Guantanamo, 30,044; Holguin, 58,000; Manzanillo, 25,735; Santiago de Cuba, 62,600.

The Cauto (Kow-to) river, of the province of Santiago, is ninety miles in length and the longest river in Cuba. Santiago de Cuba is the oldest settled province of the island and is one of the richest. It produces everything in the way of agricultural products that the others produce and is much richer in its mineral wealth, numbering among its mining products, gold, the best copper mines of the island, iron, manganese, mercury, zinc, marble, alabaster, asphalt.

The Principal Cities and Towns of Cuba

Alfonso XII, a town of Matanzas, thirteen miles south of that city at the juncture of the railroads. Population, about 3,000.

Alquizar, a town of Havana, about thirty-five miles from that town on the line of railroad to Pinar del Rio. Population, about 2,700.

Alto Songo, a town of Santiago de Cuba, twenty-five miles north of that city on the railroad to the mines. Population, about 400.

Bahia Honda, a town of Pinar del Rio, about sixty miles west or Havana. Population, 1,800. Has one of the best harbors on the coast, and it was here that the Virginius was surrendered to the American navy.

Baracoa, a town of the province of Santiago de Cuba, situated in the eastern part and the oldest town in Cuba (1512). Population, 5,200. It was once the capital city of the island, but is now the chief shipping port for the fruit trade. It has no railroad communications.

Batabano, forty-five miles south of the city of Havana, and connected with the capital by railroad. Population, about 1,900. It was the scene of active blockade running while Havana was blockaded by the American fleet.

Bayamo, a town of Santiago de Cuba province, about ninety-four miles northwest from that city, and between it and Manzanillo. It is the terminus of one of the short lines of railroad running out of Santiago. Population, about 3,634.

Bejucal, a town of Havana province, twenty-one miles south of that city on the railroad to Batabano. Population, 6,239.

Cabanas, fortified port on the north coast of Pinar del Rio about fifty miles west of Havana. It has a fine bay with a narrow entrance, defended by an old fort. Population, about 1,500.

Caibarien, a port town with a good harbor on the northeast coast of Santa Clara province, east of the capital and connected by railroad with some of the inland towns. Population 5,300.

Camerones, a town Of 546 inhabitants, north of Cienfuegos, situated near the railroad.

Canasi, a town of Matanzas, 17 miles from that city. Population 700.

Candelaria, a town of Pinar del Rio, near San Cristobal. Population 1,200. A health resort famous for its mineral springs and excellent coffee.

Cardenas, a town of Matanzas, 30 miles from that city, Population 23,680. It is sometimes called the American city. It has an excellent harbor and was once a famous resort for wreckers and pirates. It is the shipping point of a large sugar growing district and has numerous good wharves. It was in the engagement at the battle of Cardenas that Ensign Worth Bagley, the first American officer to be killed in the present war, lost his life.

Cienfuegos, a city of Santa Clara; one of the principal cities of Cuba. Population 27,430. It, like Cardenas, had a number of American merchants. It is connected by railroad with Santa Clara, the capital of the province, and the towns to the west. It is one of the finest, richest and most beautiful cities of Cuba.

Colon, a town in the eastern part of Matanzas and 84 miles from that city. It is the center of the sugar-producing region. Population 6,500. It is on the railroad.

Gibara, on the northern coast of Santiago. It has a fine harbor for vessels of light draft, not over 16 feet, and an extensive trade in sugar, coffee, tobacco, fruits and lumber. It has no railroad communications.

Guantanamo, a town of Santiago on the southern coast, less than 50 miles from Santiago de Cuba. Has a fine harbor. It was here that 600 marines were landed from the troop ship "Panther" to begin the invasion of Cuba and secure a base of operation for the American fleet.

Guines, a town of Havana province, 30 miles from that city by road, 45 by railroad. It is the center of a rich sugar district. Population 7,000.

Havana, the largest city of Cuba and the capital of the island. Population about 200,000. It is the center of the manufacturing, commercial, and political life of the island. The city itself lies on the western side of the bay, the finest in the West Indies, and affording ample anchorage for 1,000 large vessels. The distance from New York to Havana is 1,413 miles; from New Orleans to Havana, 475 miles; from Key West to Havana, 93 miles.

The city contains many fine residences of the wealthy, the cultured and the Spanish officials. It is said to have one of the finest opera houses in the world and its public squares are famous for their size and beauty. In normal times it is the scene of considerable commercial life. More than 3,000 ships annually touch at its port. It is well fortified both at the entrance and on either side and the city is inclosed by walls. The name of nearly every institution is either of a religious or patriotic order. Its famous fortification El Morro (the Round Tower) was first built in 1589. The twelve guns which defend it each bear the name of an apostle.

The principal defenses in the order of their importance are Principe, Cabana, San Diego, Morro, Punta, Ataras, Reina, and Santa Clara. Other batteries have lately been added of which we have no knowledge.

General Grant said he thought Havana would not be hard to take if the port was blockaded and an army landed out of range of the fortifications of the City, but surrounding it on the land side. With a strict blockade, hunger would become a powerful ally of the attacking force.

Holguin, a city of Santiago, south of the port of Gibara, and with a population Of 34,767.

Juan de los Remedios, a town of Santa Clara province, 295 miles from Havana. Population 7,230, It was founded in 1545. It is four miles from its port Caibarien.

Manzanillo, a town of Santiago, 16o miles from that city. Population 9,000. It has a fine harbor and the country immediately surrounding it produces large quantities of sugar, while on the higher slopes are rich timber lands.

Mariel, a town of Pinar del Rio, 34 miles from Havana. It has a good harbor. Population 1,637

Matanzas is the capital of the province of that name and the second richest city of the island. Connected with Havana by railroad 74 miles, by direct road 54 miles. Population 36,102. The harbor is deep, broad, and defended by fortifications. At its mouth a reef and ledge of rocks extend across, leaving only a narrow channel on each side. It has good public buildings and the finest theatre on the island.

Pinar del Rio capital of the province of the same name, 155 miles from Havana, with which it is connected by railroad. This is the center of the famous tobacco district. Population 5,500.

Puerto Principe, capital of the province of the same name. A town without hotels or sidewalks,and even when compared with other Cuban cities, is 100 years behind the times. It is connected with its port, Nuevitas, by rail. Population 46,641.

Sagua la Grande, a town of Santa Clara, 26o miles from Havana. Havana, Santa Clara and Cienfuegos are connected with it by railroad. It has a population of 14,000 and is one of the important cities of the island.

Sancti Spiriti, a town of Santa Clara, situated in the southeastern corner of that province, 55 miles from the capital, and connected by a short railroad with Tunas, at the mouth of the river Sasa. Population 32,605.

San Cristobal, a town of Pinar del Rio, 70 miles from Havana. Population 3,522.

San Fernando Nuevitas, 45 miles from Puerto Principe, with which it is connected by rail. It is a modern town in appearance, founded in 1819. Population 7,000.

Santa Clara, capital of the province of the name, 248 miles from Havana. Population 35,000. It is the center of a rich mineral district and is famous for the fine quality of asphalt which is the particular trade of its port. Gold, plumbago, and copper are among the minerals produced. It is connected by rail with Cienfuegos, Colon, Cardenas, Matanzas and Havana.

Santiago de Cuba (usually called Cuba, in the island), one of the oldest towns in Cuba and for a time the capital, was founded by Diego Valasquez on his first voyage, 1515. It was the headquarters of Hernando De Soto when he was commander of the island. It was captured by the French in 1553 and at various times was almost wiped out by the buccaneers. It has been a frequent and severe sufferer from earthquakes. In 1608 the cathedral was ruined by one and in 1776 many people were killed and buildings destroyed by another. It is the second town in commercial importance in the island.

The city is situated on a bay four miles in length, the entrance to which is high, narrow and well defended by the batteries Morro, Aquadores, Estrella and Cabanas. It is a famous old town with streets regularly laid out and the houses generally of stone and well built. It would be capable of making a stubborn defense were its inhabitants as spirited as those of Saragossa.

The Virginius was taken into Santiago de Cuba and here 53 of her passengers were shot, November, 1873. Shut in by the highlands, the city is low, unhealthful and a frequent abode of the dreaded yellow fever. Population 71,307.

The distance from Santiago to Kingston, Jamaica, is 200 miles; from Santiago to Greytown (entrance to Nicaragua canal), 700 miles.

Railroads

There are ten railroad companies in Cuba and the total mileage under their control is about 1,000 miles. The most of this is in the western part of the island and communicating with Havana. Cienfuegos and Santa Clara are the farthest eastern towns with which Havana has railroad communications. A short railroad connects Puerto Principe with a seaport town of the province, Nuevitas. There are short roads of a few miles only, running from Santiago de Cuba and Guantanamo, but these two towns, although rather less than fifty miles apart in a direct line, are not connected by rail. All the larger sugar plantations have private roads connecting them with the main line.

Wagon Roads

The wagon roads of Cuba are not any too good at the best and during the wet season are almost impassable. General Stone, Director of the Road Inquiry Bureau of the Department of Agriculture, goes to Cuba with the invading army equipped with a complete outfit of road making machinery, the first time we think in the history of military affairs when an invading army has been fitted out in this way.

During our late civil war there were numerous instances where armies were compelled to wait for the mud to dry, when with good roads, decided progress could have been made. The ancient military roads of the Romans show how thoroughly they understood the advantage of good communications between military positions. The roads constructed by General Stone are likely to be not only of immense benefit to the invading army, but will remain and become of permanent value to the people of Cuba when quiet is restored.

There are four submarine cable companies connecting with Cuba.

(1). The International Ocean Telegraph Company, with a line reaching from Havana to Florida, co-operating with the Western Union.

(2). Cuban Submarine Telegraph Company, connecting Havana, Cienfuegos and Santiago.

(3). West India and Panama Company, connecting Havana, Santiago, Jamaica, Porto Rico, the Lesser Antilles and Panama.

(4). French Cable Company, connecting Havana, Santiago, Jamaica, Haiti, Santo Domingo, Venezuela and Brazil.

There are only three towns in Cuba that have cable communications, namely, Havana, Cienfuegos and Santiago.*

*British consul-general's report, 1896.

Population.

We have seen that Cuba contains about 45,000 miles, inclusive of all the adjacent islands, but no small part of this is made up of marshy lowlands, barren keys and the rugged and broken mountainous districts. Probably not more than four-fifths of it will ever be thickly populated. Considering the really desirable area, Cuba in 1895 was was about as thickly populated as Virginia.

The inhabitants of Cuba are usually divided into five classes:

1. The natives of Spain, who are called "Peninsulars."

2. Those of Spanish descent born in Cuba, called "Insulars."

3. Foreign white population.

4. Africans and their descendants.

5. Asiatics.

In 1850 it was estimated that the negroes, including in this class the full bloods, mulattoes and quadroons, numbered about 500,00, and constituted rather more than 50o per cent of the population, In 1887, their last official census, the same class numbered 485,187, and constituted a fraction over 30 per cent of the entire population, showing both an actual and relative decline in numbers compared to the white population.

Slavery became extinct in Cuba in 1887. The first law for gradual emancipation passed in 1870, and the institution entirely prohibited in 1886.

At the breaking out of the Cuban insurrection the the population of the island was estimated at rather more than a million and a half, of whom less than 500,00, belonged to the class returned in the census reports as negroes.

The third class, the foreign whites, constitute but a small part of the population of Cuba, probably not more than 11,000.

Of the Asiatics, or " coolies," imported by Spain from the Philippines, only a guess can be made. Their numbers are variously estimated at from 25,000 to 50,000. The coolie is bound to work for his master for a certain length of time at very small pay. When his period of service has expired he is almost helpless. He must either starve, leave the island or make a new contract at any terms his employer may see fit to offer.

The Insulars are estimated at about 1 million.

Government

Cuba is governed by a Captain-General, assisted by a Council of Administration. Members of the Council are nominated by the Crown.

In the interval from the "Ten Years' War" up to the present one, Cuba was entitled to representation in the Spanish Cortes. The province of Havana sent three and each of the other provinces two senators to the Cortes at Madrid. The archbishopric of Santiago and two corporations sent one each. Thirty deputies were sent to the House of Deputies. The Peninsulars held all the electoral machinery in their hands and the result may be easily guessed. Even if the Cuban representatives had represented the people in fact, they would have been but a hopeless minority in the Spanish Cortes in support of any measure opposed to the wishes of the mother country.

Of the measure of autonomy recently offered them by the Sagasta Ministry, General Fitzhugh Lee has recently said: "The Spaniards could easily control one of the legislative chambers, and behind any joint action on the part of both was the veto of the Governor-General, whose appointment was made from the throne at Madrid. Blanco's Autonomistic Government was doomed to failure from its inception. The Spanish soldiers and officers scorned it, because they did not desire Cuban rule, which such autonomy, if genuine, would insure.

The Spanish merchants and citizens were opposed to it. because they, too, were hostile to the Cubans having control of the island, and if the question could be narrowed down to Cuban control or annexation to the United States, they were all annexationists, believing that they could get a better government, and one that would protect, in a greater measure, life and property under the United States flag than under the Cuban banner. The Cubans in arms would not touch it, because they were fighting for free Cuba.

Electoral Franchise

One of the qualifications in voting for representatives to the Cortes was the payment of a direct tax of 25 dollars, equivalent to the tax on a net income of about $1,250. It is easy to see that many Cubans would be debarred. In fact, it is said that in Spain 22 per cent of the population are voters and in Cuba only four per cent. The franchise in Cuba was extended to the numerous army of clerks, inspectors and government employees of all sorts, which easily enabled the " Peninsulars " to control the elections.

Compulsory Education

Compulsory education was established in 1880. In 1892 there were 843 schools and one university.

In May, 1897, Cuban notes were at forty per cent. discount, although made legal tender for their face value throughout the island.

History

On the 17th of April, 1492, in the city of Santa Fe, province of Granada, one of the most momentous documents in Spanish history was signed. It was the agreement between Columbus and the rulers of Spain, as to the reward he should receive if successful on his proposed voyage of discovery, and is of so much interest that we append the chief points.

1. Columbus should have for himself during his life, and his heirs and successors forever, the office of Admiral in all the lands and continents which he might discover or acquire in the ocean, with the same honors and prerogatives then enjoyed by the High Admiral of Castile, the highest office in the Spanish navy.

2. He should be viceroy and governor-general over all the said lands and continents, with the privilege of nominating three candidates for the government of each island or province, one of whom should be selected by the crown.

3. After the costs were deducted he should receive for himself one-tenth of all the gold and silver, precious stones, spices and all other articles and merchandise whatsoever found, bought, bartered or gained within his admiralty.

4. He, or his lieutenant, should be the sole judge in all causes and disputes arising out of trade between these countries and Spain, provided the High Admiral of Castile had the same jurisdiction in the home district.

5. He might then, and at all other times, contribute one- eighth toward fitting out vessels to sail to these countries, and should receive one-eighth part of the profits.

*Irving's "Life of Columbus," page 77.

Isabella had offered to pledge her jewels to raise the amount necessary for this enterprise, but that sacrifice was uncalled for. Both Ferdinand and Isabella signed the commissions, but all the crown's expenses were paid by Castile, Isabella's separate kingdom, and during her life few but Castilians had much to do with the new lands. Through his friends, the Pinzons, Columbus furnished his share of the expense of the enterprise, and on Friday, August 3, 1492, with ninety men and three little ships, he sailed from Palos, Spain, and began one of the most remarkable voyages in history.

After a voyage full of hopes and disappointments, land was at last discovered. The signal came at two o'clock Friday morning, October 12th, from Pinzon's ship the Pinta, and a sailor named Rodrigo de Tiana was the first to behold the new world. Columbus named the island San Salvador; to the navigators of to-day it is known as Cat Island. He continued his cruise in the West Indies, and on October 28, 1492, discovered Cuba, touching the coast on the north near what is now called Nuevitas. He thought it part of a large continent, though the Indians described it to him as an island, and he accepted their opinion for a time, but later returned to his former belief, and in his official report called it a continent.

After leaving the island of Cuba, Columbus steered to the eastward, and on the 6th of December, 1492, the beautiful island of Haiti appeared before him. It was here that one of his vessels was driven on a reef and lost. Pieces of the wreck were carried ashore and a fortress erected from them, defended by guns taken from the vessel. Thirty-nine of the crew were left behind, and in this fort, La Navidad, under command of Diego de Arana, the first colony in the new world was founded.

On his second voyage he determined to make sure that Cuba was a continent, and sailed around the eastern point of Cape Maysi, skirted the southern shore, passed the Isle of Pines, and came almost within sight of the western extremity, Cape San Antonio. A few hours' farther sail would have shown him his mistake, but he was only confirmed in his first belief, and each man and boy on the ship took oath and signed a remarkable document, saying, he believed it to be a continent. Washington Irving states he saw this document in his day.

Very little gold was found in Cuba and that little consisted of a few barbaric ornaments worn by the simple natives, which they gladly traded for the most insignificant toys offered them by the Spaniards. Nothing but the precious metals or jewels could satisfy the rapacious greed of the explorers and no attention was paid to the fertile soil and natural resources of Cuba. At Haiti more gold was found, not only in the ornaments worn by the natives, but in the sands of the rivers and rocks of the mountains, and so that island came to be the first colonized by the Spaniards in the new world.

Columbus' lot was not a happy one. He was a foreigner with little influence and surrounded by jealous and ambitious enemies, who poisoned the minds of the Spanish court. He was even accused of planning to throw off Spanish allegiance and declare himself sovereign of the lands he had discovered. The suspicion and jealousy of Ferdinand were easily aroused and a royal officer, Bobadilla, sent to Haiti to investigate. Contrary to the express provisions of the contract between Columbus and the Crown, he was deprived of his command, arrested with his brothers, placed in irons and sent to Spain. Upon his arrival there in this condition a general wave of indignation swept over the country.

The queen, convinced that Columbus had been wronged, Ferdinand was compelled to yield to her and popular opinion. He was received at court and treated with honors, but his office was not restored to him, neither was he returned to Haiti. He was now about sixty-five years of age, broken in health, and but for the support rendered by his able and vigorous brother, Bartholomew, and the affection displayed by his younger son, Fernando, would have fallen an easy prey to his jealous enemies.

Although he besieged the Crown for weary months and was put off with numerous promises, his dignities were never restored to him.

The fourth expedition for discovery was fitted out and he placed in command. He touched at San Domingo, although he had been ordered not to do so, but was refused admittance to the port. He skirted the coast of Honduras and touched the northern shore of South America. Here he was wrecked, his health suffered from privation, his men mutinied, and he returned broken in spirit.

His good friend, Queen Isabella, died. Ferdinand remained cold and suspicious and deprived him of his just titles and dignity. He died May 20, 1506, about 70 years of age, a poor, disappointed, brokenhearted, old man. He had kept the chains he wore home from Haiti and at his request they were buried with him. Ferdinand's recognition of his services consisted in writing his epitaph, "To Castile and Leon, Columbus gave a new world." He made a will in which he named his son Diego as his heir.

His remains were deposited in the Convent of San Francisco at Valladolid in 1506; they were removed in 1513 to the Convent of Las Cuevas at Seville, only to be transferred again in 1536 to San Domingo and from there borne in 1795 to Cuba, where they found, together with all that is mortal of his son Diego, a final resting place in the great cathedral at Havana.

Having speedily exhausted the mining resources of Haiti and worn out the natives, Cuba was now invaded by Diego Valesquez, the lieutenant appointed by Columbus' son, who succeeded to his titles. The landing was effected 1511, and the Indians quickly subdued, The Spanish made their appearance in the isle with the customary bigotry and cruelty. One chief who had fled from Spanish oppression in Haiti offered some resistance, but was captured, and according to a very pleasant Spanish custom, burned at the stake. When urged by the priests to repent, that he might go to heaven, he replied that he did not wish to go if there were any Spaniards there.

The first settlements in Cuba were made in the following order: Baracoa (1512),Bayamo, Trinidad (1514), Sancti Spiriti (1514), Puerto Principe (1514), Santiago de Cuba (1515), Havana (15 15). It was from Havana that De Soto (1538) set out in search of Eldorado and discovered only a great river in which he found a watery grave.

Santiago de Cuba was made the capital of the island, then colonization began in earnest. Sugar cane was now introduced, the natives completely subdued and apportioned out as slaves among the planters, or compelled to labor in the mines. The treatment they received was severe in the extreme, and under their harsh task-masters they were worn out to satisfy Spanish greed, or destroyed themselves in their despair.

In 1553, less than half a century of Spanish rule, the whole native population, estimated at 3,000,000 souls, had been ruthlessly swept away and negroes were imported in their stead. Can a nation constantly practice such inhuman cruelty and prosper?

The Spaniards did not escape unscathed. Ignorant and neglectful of proper sanitary measures they were swept off in great numbers by dreadful fevers. The mild, peaceful natives found by the Spaniards were soon worn out by work to which they were not used, and the planters were compelled to drop the cultivation of sugar cane and take up the raising of cattle, which required less help. After a time negro slaves were introduced to take the place of the native Cubans and the cultivation of sugar cane, and with it tobacco, was taken up and these have ever since been Cuba's staple products.

The tobacco trade was made a monopoly by the government, and in 17 17 a revolt broke out occasioned by its obnoxious regulations. The insurrection was quickly subdued only to burst forth again in 1723, occasioned by an oppressive government's exactions. This rebellion was stamped out with much severity and the leaders hanged. From 1700 to 1750 shipbuilding was the leading industry in Havana, but the ship builders of Spain having offered a protest, such exactions were put upon the business that it was impossible for it to continue for any length of time, and it is-doubtful if half a dozen ships have been built in Cuba during the present century.

Buccaneers

The inhabitants lived in constant terror of the English, French and Dutch privateers, but a more terrible foe yet was found in the buccaneers, a combination of sailor, hunter, privateersman and adventurer. Along the coast of Santo Domingo were a few isolated settlements, whose inhabitants were by law permitted to trade only with Spain and in whose markets they were compelled to pay an exorbitant price. They welcomed the hardy smugglers, who, excited by their great gains, touched at their coasts and carried on an illicit trade, and from these the buccaneers were descended.

The island produced numerous cattle; their flesh, dried and preserved by fire and smoke, was termed "boucan." From this the name buccaneer came. Soon the island of Hispaniola (Haiti) became the recognized haunt of these adventurers. Everything Spanish excited their animosity. They were fierce fighters, utterly fearless, and were tacitly encouraged by the other nations who were covetous of Spain's territorial possessions.

The most famous of these was Henry Morgan, a Welsh buccaneer, who afterward returned to England and was knighted by King Charles of England and made Deputy-Governor of Jamaica. They differed from pirates in that they did not prey upon mankind in general, but almost exclusively upon the Spaniards. Their success brought other adventurous spirits to their aid and they increased in numbers until they constituted a strong, mercenary navy at the service of any nation which had a grievance against Spain. Afterward they fell because of their vices and dissensions among themselves.

Much as Cuba suffered at the hand of the buccaneers, Spain's many wars were scarcely less disastrous to her. Havana was burned by a French privateer in 1538, and to prevent a repetition of this De Soto erected the Castillo de la Fuerza, a portion of which remains to this day. These defenses were not sufficient, and in 1554 Havana was again captured by the French. After this two other famous fortresses were added, the Punta and the Morro, the latter of which, standing today, is more than 300 years old.

In spite of all drawbacks, the city gradually became of some importance, and all ships sailing from Mexico were by law compelled to stop at Havana and report to the Captain-General. The other colonies, being richer in gold and silver, were in a way a drain upon Cuba, whose fertile soil and wealth of forest were not yet appreciated. Harsh laws further handicapped its growth. One imposed the death penalty on all who left the island; another prohibited anyone who was not a native of Castile, from trading with or settling in Cuba.

British Capture Havana, 1762

Toward the close of the " Seven Years' War," (see history of Spain) a British fleet under Admiral Pocock and a land, force under Lord Albemarle were sent to attack Havana. This is of especial interest to Americans because in Lord Albemarle's force were New York and Connecticut troops under the command of General Phineas Lyman and Colonel Israel Putnam. The attacking forces appeared off Havana, June 7th, 1762, and a landing in small boats was made a little east of the city, near the town of Guanabacoa. The advance guard pressed forward vigorously, and soon encountered some light earthworks that had been hastily thrown up to protect the Spanish outposts.

The outposts poured in a spirited fire, but, characteristic of the Spanish even today, were unable to hit anybody, and were soon scurrying toward Morro Castle as fast as their legs could carry them. The advance continued and soon encountered some stronger earthworks at Cojima, which brought them to a halt. The British ship " Dragon " then moved up and opened fire on the fort, and in less than an hour silenced its guns, and sent its garrison flying toward Morro Castle. Without stopping for rest the British forces continued their advance, and that night camped two miles west of Morro Castle itself, which distance rendered them safe from the artillery used at that time.

Today the Krupp guns of Morro could toss some embarrassing visitors into a camp three times as far away. The following day the town of Guanabacoa was captured and Cabanas Heights, which are now well fortified but were then destitute of defense, were occupied and the engineers began their regular approaches toward the Spanish position.

The workmen suffered great annoyance from mounted guerrillas, who were continually making dashes upon them from out the country south, and necessitated a close watch and powerful skirmish line to protect the engineers.

The investment had progressed so well, that about a week after the siege had begun Colonel Carleton under a flag of truce carried a letter from Lord Albemarle to the governor demanding his surrender and naming British terms. The Spanish governor was too proud to allow Colonel Carleton to present the letter to him in person, and the English officer would not send it by any other man, so took it back to camp with him. He delivered it in person the following day, but no answer was returned.

The besiegers were handicapped greatly by continued heavy rains, only to be followed by dry days with intense, scorching, tropical heat. Suitable drinking water could only be obtained from the fleet, and the men broke down rapidly under the hardships in such climatic conditions, the death rate running very high. Nowadays, pure water would be distilled by the engines of our battleships and one fruitful source of the dreaded fever cut off.

In two weeks the engineers had completed some of their mortar batteries, and began to open an effective fire on Morro Castle. The Spanish ships in the harbor coming to the assistance of the forts were given a warm reception and compelled to return to their original anchorage. The besiegers pressed their work vigourously, and by July 1st a continual rain of shells was falling on Morro,

The position becoming too warm for them, the Spaniards sent out a forlorn hope of 600 men to attack the batteries, but the pickets and workmen, without other assistance, killed, wounded and captured a third of the attacking party and drove off the rest. It was found impossible to silence Morro by bombardment alone, and as the siege progressed the Spanish marksmanship improved so much that the British ships were driven from their position and many of the crew killed and wounded. The engineers were again called into requisition, and a mine planned to be exploded under Morro's walls. The Spaniards now sent out a larger forlorn hope, but were once more unsuccessful, and the attacking party surrendered. When some of the British went forward to secure their prisoners, they were given a sample of "Punic faith," the Spaniards rushing upon them with knives and muskets with the rage of wild beasts.

The Mine

The last of July the engineers reported their mine completed. It was carefully filled, and exploded with great success. As an observer says, "the air appearing to be full of Spaniards." The commander-in-chief of the British force had an attacking party in readiness, and they pushed forward vigorously to the breach. The Spaniards appeared paralyzed by the shock, and little opposition was offered, though some of the officers lost their lives in a brave but fruitless endeavor to repulse the attacking party. One, Captain Velasquez, or Velosco, the worthy owner of an illustrious name, deserted by his cowardly soldiers, fell mortally wounded, and breathing his last requested to be sent into the city that he might die in Havana. It was granted him.

Morro Captured

The British were now in possession of Morro Castle and the surrender of the town soon followed. The Spanish loss during the siege was estimated at 6,000. The British force had not suffered so heavily in killed and wounded, but their loss from disease was something frightful. The army alone lost 4,708 men by disease. The Spaniards surrendered 11 large warships, 25 merchantmen and about $3 million in gold and silver.

British Influence

The English kept possession of the island until July 6th, 1763. They imported negro labor, began the cultivation of large tracts of wild land, shipped quantities of European merchandise to the island, and gave a strong impetus to trade. They made Havana a free port and opened it to the commerce of the world, and the Spaniards upon their return to power found it impolitic to try to enforce all their former obnoxious restrictions in the way of trade with other nations.

For a century after this, Cuba enjoyed a marked period of prosperity. To be sure, there were little insurrections, but none of them attained serious proportions. Havana once did a thriving business in the way of building guard ships for the treasure fleets. More than 100 such vessels were launched from her yards, but toward the close of the 18th century they were compelled to give this up, because Of the demands of the Spanish workmen that such ships should be built at home. Hardly a dozen ships have since been built in Cuba.

Sugar

During this period she had little to sell but tobacco and animal products, but about this time sugar came into general use in the world; its production increased in Cuba and soon took front rank as the most valuable product of the island. Its price of over forty cents a pound, equal to twice that amount today, shows that it was not universally used. It is interesting to note that Great Britain uses more than seventy times as much sugar as she did a century ago, and that its growth seems to have kept pace with the increased use of tea and coffee.

Las Casas

For a time after the restoration of Cuba to the Spaniards the island enjoyed the ministration of able and oftentimes just governors. Las Casas became Captain-General in 1790; and is today esteemed as one of the best and wisest the island ever had. He founded the "Patriotic Society," which has now become so powerful that it is allowed to send a delegate to the Spanish Cortez. He improved the roads, fortifications, hospitals, and founded a lunatic asylum, a remarkable advance in any country at that time. In June, 1791, the island was devastated by one of the most terrible hurricanes in its history, and the prompt relief that he afforded speaks highly of his executive ability.

San Domingo

The French Revolution occurring about this time gave an impulse to the feverish unrest in the neighborin- Island of San Domingo, and the terrible servile war broke forth. Thanks to Las Casas' ability, the Island of Cuba was preserved from any trouble of the kind, and he gave a safe harbor to many of the refugees who were forced to flee from San Domingo. It was during his time that the remains of Columbus were transferred from San Domingo to the cathedral at Havana.

Cuba's Title

When Napoleon placed his brother on the throne of Spain in 1808 Cuba refused to recognize Joseph as king, and by its loyalty won for itself the title of "The Ever Faithful Isle." The colonial government declared war against Napoleon and proclaimed Ferdinand VII king. For a time the island was reduced to such straits that they seriously considered throwing open the ports to all nations to admit supplies, and inviting the French to take possession. A disturbance at once arose and considerable property was destroyed, but quiet was restored with the loss of a few lives.

Negro Plot

A negro, conspiracy was begun in 1812 and excited profound alarm for a time, but it was put down with unsparing severity, and the leader, Aponte, and his confederates summarily executed.

In 1810 another terrible hurricane visited the island, did great damage to the City of Havana, and destroyed no less than sixty merchant vessels at anchor in this harbor.

Influence of Spanish-American Colonies

The success of the Spanish-American colonies on the continent in obtaining their independence naturally aroused considerable feeling in Cuba. Secret societies were formed, all having for their object the overthrow of Spanish power, or at least the securing of a more liberal form of government. From this time the lines were sharply drawn between the Spaniards or "Peninsulars and the Cubans or "Insulars."

Bolivar

Numerous uprisings on the part of the Cubans took place from 1820 to 1830, but petty jealousies, rivalries and imperfect organization rendered their success impossible, although at one time it was planned to invade the island by Cuban refugees and their sympathizers from Colombia and Mexico under the leadership of General Simon Bolivar. The plan was abandoned, and the island passed under the undisputed control of Spain.

Black Eagle

In 1827 a secret society called the "Black Eagle" was organized among the Cuban refugees with headquarters in Mexico, and recruiting agencies established in Colombia and the United States. This scheme was a failure from the first, as it encountered the opposition of the slave-holding element of all the countries concerned. The conspiracy was discovered and the leaders condemned to death, but the Captain-General refrained from inflicting the extreme penalty.

Period of Conspiracies

In 1834 began what is known as the "Period of Conspiracies," and from that time forward the history of Cuba becomes a monotonous recital of unsuccessful insurrections. In the revolt of 1844, thirteen hundred and fortysix persons were convicted. Upon seventy-eight the extreme penalty was inflicted. Of all the convicted persons only fourteen were white.

In 1847, Narciso Lopez, a native of Venezuela, who had served with the rank of major-general in the Spanish army, headed a revolutionary movement, but was unsuccessful and compelled to flee to New York.

U. S. Offers to Buy

In 1848, President Polk tried to open negotiations with the Spanish government for the sale of Cuba to the United States for the sum of $100 million.

American Filibusters

In 1849, Lopez, having organized a filibustering expedition, landed at Cardenas with about 600 men. He found the conditions for an uprising were not favorable, and hastily re-embarked and sailed for Key West. He organized another expedition, and, sailing from New Orleans, landed near Bahia Honda August 12, 1851.

With him was Col. Crittenden from Kentucky, the second in command, at the bead of the American sympathizers. Lopez, with the main body, pushed rapidly forward into the interior. Crittenden was left with about 50 men to cover the landing and bring up supplies. While the forces were thus divided they were attacked by the Spaniards, and all of the rear guard killed in action or afterwards shot. Lopez' division was equally unsuccessful. He was captured and garroted. The United States government soon after suppressed another expedition.

Black Warrior

In 1850 the United States was brought to the verge of war with Spain over the "Black Warrior" case. The "Black Warrior" was owned in New York, and made regular voyages between that city and Mobile. She was one of the largest steamers engaged in the coasting trade, capable of carrying from 200 to 300 passengers, and making the round trip in about a month. In going and returning she put into Havana to discharge and receive mail and passengers, but no freight was taken or discharged, nor was her cargo in any way disturbed.

According to the exacting custom regulations of the port, she should at each time have exhibited a manifest of her cargo, but as none was to be moved she was entered and cleared as "in ballast," and had practiced this, without question, for years. There was nothing secret or mysterious about this, and it was with the full knowledge and consent of the revenue officers, and, in fact, permitted by a written order issued by the Cuban authorities dated February 27, 1847. But in 1850 considerable feeling existed between Spain and the United States.

On the 28th of February the steamer was seized by the revenue authorities upon the charge of having on board an undeclared cargo. The cargo was confiscated and a fine of twice its value levied against the vessel. Captain Bullock refused to pay the fine, and protested vigorously against the whole proceedings as both unlawful and in bad faith. The revenue officers had tried to trick him into a technical violation of the customs laws by opening the hatches of the ship and getting ready the usual machinery for hoisting cargo. The captain declared this a forcible seizure, took his flag and such of his papers as he could secure, and with his passengers left the ship. The owners at once appealed to the government of the United States, demanded protection, and made a claim for damages. An indemnity of $300,000 was paid them after five years of wrangling.

The Quitman Expedition

In 1854 another filibustering expedition under the command of General Quitman, of Mississippi, was planned, and preparations again made to invade Cuba. Before the expedition sailed, however, the Cuban leaders were discovered, imprisoned, and some of them summarily executed.

Spain's Irritating Course

Following the "Black Warrior" case were others less serious, but still very annoying. Exorbitant fines were levied on American vessels in Cuban ports for the most trivial and purely technical offenses. American ships were stopped on the high seas and searched by Spanish cruisers, and American citizens in Cuba arrested on various charges. In addition, slave-holders felt a feeling of insecurity over the probable abolition of slavery in Cuba. The Spanish colonies of America, on declaring their independence, had abolished slavery, and it seemed likely that the existence of that institution in Cuba was doomed.

Europe Concerned

The strained relations between Spain and the United States, and the very evident intention of the dominant political party of the latter country to either buy or seize Cuba, excited the apprehension of Europe. England and France united in a diplomatic representation to the United States, asking the latter country to join with them in an agreement by which neither of the signatory powers should ever acquire Cuba or permit any other power to do so. After due consideration the United States declined to be a party to this, urging for their action three reasons:

First. The traditional reluctance of America to become a party to "entangling alliances."

Second. That such action did not provide for future contingencies that might arise, and was perhaps unconstitutional.

Third. That each of the other parties were asking greater concessions on our part than they were giving, as by reason of its geographical position there would be strategetical advantages for the United States in the possession of Cuba, not so valuable to England or to France.

Ostend Manifesto

The anxiety of the South to secure Cuba before it should become a dangerous asylum for runaway slaves, the evident desire of Europe not to see such a transaction consummated, the strained relations with Spain impelled President Pierce to direct Mr. Marcy, secretary of state, to instruct Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soule, United States ministers at the courts of London, Paris and Madrid, to meet in some European city and discuss the question of the acquisition of Cuba by the United States.

The ministers met at Ostend, Belgium, and issued their famous manifesto in which they declared that it was the manifest duty of the United States to acquire Cuba; that the Union could never enjoy repose and security "as long as Cuba is not embraced within its boundaries "for fear it might" be Africanized and become a second San Domingo, seriously endangering the Union; "that Spain would find it highly advantageous to her to sell it; recommended the purchase of the island for $120,000,000; emphatically stated that in no event should any European government be allowed to become the owner of the island. They further declared that if freedom were given to the slaves in Cuba it would so endanger the United States as to justify them in taking forcible possession.

This remarkable paper excited the amazement of all Europe, and greatly intensified Spain's resentment against the United States. It was taken very seriously at home, and endorsed by President Pierce and his administration. In fact, the Democratic national conventions of 1856 and 1860 each expressed themselves emphatically " in favor of the acquisition of Cuba."

Ten Years' War

During the Civil War of the United States, Cuba was under the administration of able and liberal governors, who successfully preserved the tranquillity of the island in spite of the disturbing influences so near at hand. The close of that war and the emancipation of the slaves, seems to have encouraged the leaders of freedom in Cuba. They took advantage of a Spanish cabinet in power at the time, seemingly more liberal than usual, and asked that a commission be appointed to examine into Cuban affairs, correct abuses and consider such vital questions and give the Cubans a constitution in place of the Captain-General, granting them the right of petition, making native Cubans eligible to public office, granting relief from the exactions of some of the industrial monopolies held by the crown, allowing representation for the island in the Spanish Cortes and providing for the "freedom of the press."

A commission was appointed, but these important subjects received little if any consideration. Only a few minor changes were made, and an additional tax of ten per cent was added to the already over-burdened colony.

The revolution in Spain that expelled Isabella II, brought greater freedom to the Spaniards, but no relief to the suffering Cubans.

Hostilities Begin

Plans for an insurrection had been considered for some time, and were not matured. Under the leadership of a few brave and daring men at various points in the different provinces, the discontented rallied and prepared to take up arms. On October 10, 1868, Carlos N. de Cespedes, a lawyer of Bayamo, at the head of orie hundred and twenty eight poorly armed men issued the famous Declaration of Independence of Yara.

Spain has many times promised us Cubans to respect our rights, without further having fulfilled her promises; she continues to tax us heavily, and by so doing is likely to destroy our wealth; as we are in danger of losing our property, our lives, and we want no further Spanish domination, etc."

Within a short time Cespedes was at the head of from 10,000 to 15,000 men, not more than half of whom were well armed, but their enthusiasm and energy went far toward making up for their poor equipment. They repulsed the Spanish troops sent against them, and proceeded vigorously against the important towns of the interior that fell into their hands one after another, as the result of a guerrilla campaign, in which Manuel Quesada greatly distinguished himself.

Cuban Successes

Had it not been for the Spanish fleet the Cubans would have captured even the seaport towns. Dulce was sent from Spain and made Captain-General. He offered to consider the Cuban grievances and grant a general amnesty, but his offers were indignantly refused by the Cubans, while their proffer irritated the "volunteers" and rendered him unpopular with his own party.

Cuban Provisional Government

Cuban delegates met in convention April, 1869, elected Cespedes President, Manuel Quesada General-in-Chief, and framed a constitution. There were volunteers enough, brave and enthusiastic, but then, as now, the lack of Cuba was small arms, ammunition, provisions and medical supplies. They received some relief in this direction by the successful landing of filibustering expeditions from the United States, one under Raphael Quesada and another under Colonel Thomas Jordan, who had formerly served with honor in the Confederate army.

The unpopularity of the Captain-General, the high death rate in the unacclimated Spanish army incident to a rainy season, had deterred the Spaniards from making an active campaign against the insurgents. However, in the fall of 1870, at the close of the yellow fever season, which had been so fatal to the new troops sent out from Spain, active operations were resumed. The Cubans had made the most of the delay; their forces were in much better condition and some considerable advantages were gained by them.

Havana "Volunteers"

Then, as now, in Havana and vicinity, a large part of the military force of Spain was made up of volunteers composed of the "Peninsulars" holding office under the crown. These men were never amenable to strict discipline, and were a prolific source of trouble to any officer who excited their resentment. They resembled, in this respect, the Pratorian Guards of the early Roman Empire, paralyzing the efforts of any commander who was unpopular with them, and, perhaps, tomorrow disgracing the favorite of today. In June, 1870, they went so far as to seize Captain-General Dulce and send him back to Spain, and depose General Pinto, Military Governor of Matanzas. They terrorized the whole country wherever they were located, and were so powerful that they compelled the Spanish authorities to wink at their irregularities. The Cubans had no more unrelenting enemy than these "gentlemen" soldiers.

Summary

For the first two years the Cubans made considerable headway, and had they been able to reserve an open port and command a few vessels capable of landing supplies, they might have been successful, but by the aid of her navy Spain rendered it exceedingly difficult and dangerous to import the necessary war material, and the military resources of the mother country were much superior to those of the revolting colonies.

Cubans Recognized

At the height of their success the Cubans were recognized as belligerents by Chile, Bolivia, Guatemala, Colombia and the Republic of Mexico. Their independence was formally recognized by Peru June 15, 1869.

Not content with their natural difficulties the Cubans, in 1873, deposed their president, Cespedes, quarreled vigorously among themselves as to his successor, alienated their friends, and by this action threw -away their chance of success.

Had Spain been in a position to push affairs vigorously just at that time, it would seem as though the rebellion could have been speedily suppressed, but at this period she was occupied at home with her Carlist troubles. The Cubans, without a navy, were unable to obtain the needed arms and ammunition, and the Spaniards, by the aid of their fleet, kept command of the coast towns. The terrible struggle thus dragged on, marked by heavy losses and slight gains on either side, the Cubans slowly losing ground.

Peace of Zanjon

In 1876, General Martinez de Campos, a distinguished soldier, arrived in Cuba as commander-general, bringing with him 25,000 veterans of the Carlist wars, and prepared to push matters vigorously. The Cubans avoided battle in force, trusted to guerrilla warfare, and relied upon the yellow fever to do its terrible work upon the new Spanish troops; but Campos was an abler leader than they had yet opposed; even his enemies confided in his honor, and the numerous dissensions among themselves had weakened the Cubans until many of them listened attentively to propositions for peace.

In 1878 an armistice was agreed upon, and the Cuban leaders met at Camaguey to consider the propositions for peace offered by General Campos. General Garcia, who had succeeded to the presidency of the Cuban Republic, was appointed with nine others, and commissioned to confer with the Spanish commander. The meeting was held near Zanjon, in the district of Canagua, and what is known as the "Peace of Zanjon" was proclaimed February 10, 1878. By its terms the Cubans laid down their arms, and Spain agreed to grant in substance the reforms demanded by the Cuban commission of inquiry eleven years before.

Its Reception at Madrid

Having ended hostilities and pacified Cuba, Campos returned to Madrid and placed the treaty before his government for ratification. Canovas, since assassinated, was at the head of the cabinet and resigned his ministry rather than lay before that body the terms to which Campos had agreed for carrying out the reforms he promised to Cuba in the name of Spain. The Cubans had laid down their arms in obedience to the most solemn pledges of Campos that these reforms should be granted, and upon the resignation of Canovas in March, 1879, Campos dissolved the Cortes, secured a majority in the ensuing election and organized a new cabinet.

Promises Ignored

However, his plans met only with a lukewarm support from his colleagues and lack of harmony prevailed in the new cabinet, Campos resigning and Canovas again returning to the ministry, while the promises so solemnly made at Zanjon to the struggling Cubans, were ignored. The most marked result of the Ten Years' War was the abolition of slavery in 1886, the institution becoming extinct in 1887.

The Good Offices of the United States

During the progress of the insurrection the good offices of the United States government were repeatedly offered for the re-establishment of peace in the island. President Grant in his messages of 1869 and 1875 indicates this, and in 1876 he proposed a joint intervention of the United States and the European powers. Nothing came of this project. The question of recognizing the belligerency of the Cuban Republic was several times before the United States Congress, and, as we have seen, several of the South American Republics accorded them belligerent rights, and one of them, Peru, recognized their independence.

Cost of the Ten Years' War

Spain's loss in life, as shown by the official reports in the archives at Madrid, were for her regular army alone, 81,098. More died from disease than from wounds received in battle. In 1877, with an army supposed to number 90,000 men, more than 15,000 were in the hospital.

The losses of the Cubans can never be definitely settled, but it is probable that from 30,000 to 50,000 died of wounds and disease. Spain actually paid out in money, $300 million and fully as much more was lost by reason of destruction of property in Cuba.

Bitterness of the Strife

During this contest the most intense bitterness prevailed on both sides. No quarter was given, no prisoners exchanged; they were all slaughtered. The defeated of either party frequently committed suicide rather than fall alive into the hands of their enemies. The awful horrors of the "Ten Years' War" have no parallel in modern history.

Perils to the United States

Then as now, the United States suffered great annoyance and was compelled to incur considerable expense in the enforcement of the neutrality laws. The people of the United States without doubt sympathized with the Cubans in their struggle for freedom and it was impossible for the government to prevent the successful operation of some filibustering expeditions. The most famous of these filibusters, nearly occasioning war between Spain and the United States, was the "Virginius."

The Virginius Case

"The evidence is the facts which are detailed, as found in the custom-house papers, relative to the registry of the steamer and her clearance in New York in 1870; the testimony of the two Venezuelan prisoners taken at Havana in November, 1871, by a Spanish magistrate in the presence of the American and Venezuelan consuls; the ex parte affidavits of Captain Francis E. Shepperd and of two seamen and certain depositions made in New York in November and December, 1873, before a United States commissioner. This latter inquiry was by arrangement conducted by a consul representing the Spanish Minister and by the United States district attorney, representing the State Department, the cross-examination being careful and searching.

A Blockade Runner

"The Virginius, was originally an English blockade runner, captured during the war, and was the property of the United States. In 1870 she was lying at Washington. She was there sold and conveyed to John F. Patterson. There can be no doubt, however, that the purchase and conveyance were in the outset made on behalf of the Cuban Junta and in pursuance of a prearranged agreement.

In September, 1870, Captain Shepperd was employed as commander. . . . Roberts told Captain Shepperd that he had bought the vessel on account of certain Cubans and that these Cubans had furnished the money to pay the purchase price. The captain naturally desired to communicate directly with the principals and an arrangement was made for his immediate introduction to them.

Cuban Agents

"That evening, at the house of Mora, an interview took place, Roberts, Patterson, Mora, Quesada, Varona, and a number of other Cubans being present. Mora and Quesada declared that they were the owners of the 'Virginius.' . . . She was to proceed directly to Curacao, but her ultimate object was to be the transporting of arms, munitions of war, and soldiers to the island of Cuba in aid of the insurgents thereon. The vessel was registered in the name of John F. Patterson as owner, he making the necessary oaths as to his sole interest.

October, 1870, the steamer cleared for New York and the necessary official documents were executed by the master showing that she was bound for Curacao. The cargo, as shown by the manifest, consisted of 170 barrels of bread, valued at $680; two boxes of saddlery, valued at $400; four boxes of clothing, at $350.

Takes Military Stores Aboard

The same afternoon a few miles below Sandy Hookshe met a steam tug and took on board about twenty Cubans, among whom were General Quesada, and also a few boxes containing arms, ammunition, and military accoutrements. Captain Shepperd testified that during the entire voyage he acted under the directions of General Quesada.

Cuban Flag

At one time before reaching their destination, a merchant ship being in sight, Quesada proposed to the captain to raise the Cuban flag and capture the vessel if she should turn out to be Spanish. The worthy captain declined doing this himself, but with a true thrift suggested that it would be a very easy matter for them to overpower him, tie him in his cabin, and then make the capture on their own responsibility. This ingenious scheme was frustrated by the discovery that the vessel in sight was British. The 'Virginius' reached Curacao on the fifteenth of October. On the next Tuesday the 'Billie Butts' arrived from New York and on the same afternoon set out to sea again. The same night the 'Virginius' followed, overtook the schooner and towed her to Buen Ayre, an island about thirty miles distant.

The cargo of the ' Billie Butts' was immediately transferred to the steamer. This cargo consisted of several hundred cases of shot, shell, and ammunition; more than one hundred cases of arms, boxes of leather and other goods, and hardware; six gun carriages and four brass cannons or howitzers. The crew demanded an explanation of this transaction and refused to work further. General Quesada promised them an advance in their wages and a considerable bonus in case they made a successful landing in Cuba, and they thereupon returned to their duties."

In Venezuelan Service

The steamer now visited Venezuela, where severe war was raging. Quesada sided with one of the partisans, in return for which help was promised him in Cuba. Some small Venezuelan gunboats belonging to the opposing faction were captured while the "Virginius" was present and flying the Cuban flag. When the Venezuelan contest closed General Quesada with some Venezuelans and Cubans started for Cuba.

Successful Landing

"On the 21st of June, 1871, she made a successful landing on the southern coast of Cuba. She at once discharged the troops and her cargo, which consisted of carbines, rifles, large quantities of ammunition, military equipments and clothing."

Prior to this, Captain Shepperd, not getting his pay promptly and objecting to the Venezuelan incident, left and returned to New York.

A New Captain

About the 1st of April, 1872, we find her loaded up at Aspinwall, where Francis Bowen, an experienced shipmaster, was employed by General Quesada to act as her captain. Quesada informed him that the steamer was to land an expedition on the coast of Cuba and offered $300 per month salary and a bonus of $5,000 if the attempt was successful.

The new captain, finding no American flag on board, purchased one. No concealment was attempted by Quesada or Captain Bowen in reference to the character or destination of the vessel. About the first of May she sailed with sealed orders issued by Quesada.

Protected by the "Kansas"

By the direction of the American consul the United States gunboat 'Kansas' escorted her out to sea in order to protect her from an apprehended attack by the Spanish man-of-war 'Pizarro,' which was lying at Aspinwall.

She made a successful landing as before. Captain Bowen resigned and went to New York.

True Ownership Shown

"The 'Virginius' was largely indebted to Aspinwall for repairs, supplies and other necessaries. A bottomry bond was given to Mahle Bros., merchants at that place, who had acted as her agents and also as agents for the Cuban junta. This bond was executed by Quesada without any communication or attempt to communicate with Patterson in New York, who stood as owner in the registry. This one fact alone is conclusive.

After leaving New York no communication whatever was had with Patterson, the owner in the registry. No advice was ever asked, no direction ever sought, but he was utterly ignored by masters, officers, and crew of the steamer and by the American consuls and local authorities in the ports which she visited. Quesada declared that the vessel belonged entirely to the Cubans, that Patterson had no interest in her, that his name was used as a cover because it was necessary that an American should appear in the registry as owner, and that she would never return to the United States. Repeated declarations of Patterson to the same effect were also proved.

Her Character Well Known

"American consuls in the various ports which the 'Virginius' used were fully aware of her true character. Yet most of them not only shut their ears to Spanish complaints but openly, actively, and zealously assisted the Cuban insurgents in carrying out their projects and in consummating their fraud upon the United States sovereignty. A man at Maracaibo warned Captain Smith in the following friendly manner: 'Why don't you get rid of that damned pirate? She is nothing but a pirate and you will get caught by and by and they will bang you. I want to see you whole, anyhow, though I don't care for any of the rest.'"

British Flag Refused

At one port it was proposed to sell her to an Englishman and take out English papers, but the English consul called on Captain Smith, asked him if he intended to hoist the British flag and said, "I have a telegraph from the British minister at Caracas to seize her as a pirate if she hoists the British flag." The flag was not raised.

The Fatal Expedition

She went to Kingston, Jamaica, and made preparations for the third expedition. " Captain Joseph Fry, a United States citizen, who had served in the Confederate navy, arrived in July and took command. The cargo of arms, ammunition and other war-like materials which had been accumulating was placed on board. A considerable number of persons intending to join the insurgents also embarked, a few of whom were American citizens or British subjects. All these proceedings were open, notorious, without an attempt at concealment.

On the 23d of October, 1873, she cleared as a United States vessel for Port Simon, Costa Rica; proceeded to the coast of Cuba with the design of effecting a landing; she was intercepted by the Spanish gunboat, " Tornado; " a chase of eighty miles long ensued and ended by her capture on the thirty-first of October, at a point about eighteen miles distant from the east end of Jamaica. During this chase, and at the moment of capture, she was flying the United States flag.*

*American Law Review, Boston.

When captured, little if any contraband of war was found on board the "Virginius," but among her passengers were relatives of the Cuban leaders and officers of the Cuban army. There were in all 155 persons on board, crew 52; passengers 103 International law requires that a prize shall be taken to the nearest port, but this would have been one in Jamaica, subject to English influence, and no such indiscriminate slaughter would have been permitted there as followed at Santiago, whither the "Tornado" proceeded with her prize.

The character of the "Virginius" was well known, and a great deal of resentment was quite naturally felt toward her. Four passengers, three Cubans and one claiming British citizenship, were tried by drumhead court-martial and were shot November 4th, thirty-seven of the crew, including Captain Fry, November 7th, and twelve more passengers November 8th. Of those massacred, sixteen were British subjects and eight Americans.

This summary trial without the benefit of counsel before military authorities was in opposition to all treaty rights. Further, the worst that could be said of the " Virginius " was that she was a smuggler. It is said that the Spanish authorities intended to shoot the survivors, one hundred two in number, and would have done so but for the interference of Captain Lorrain of the British man-of-war "Niobe," who arrived at Santiago on the Sth. It was commonly reported that Captain Lorrain had threatened to bombard the town unless the executions were postponed, although we have been unable to find in the official documents any reference to such threat on his part.

Diplomatic Action

At once upon the news of the capture reaching the United States, General Daniel E. Sickles, our representative at the Madrid court, was cabled to make strong representations to the Spanish government and see that all treaty rights were respected. Castelar, then president of Spain, stated to General Sickles that he had already anticipated such request and had cabled the colonial authorities to delay executions until a regular investigation could be made.

The colonial authorities insisted that the cables were not in working order and that no messages were received until the 8th, after fifty-three had been massacred. It is certain that the messages of the American vice-consul at Santiago, E. G. Schmidt, to the American consul at Jamaica and to the consul-general at Havana, were detained by order of the Spanish general.

General Sickles, at Madrid, acting upon instructions from Hamilton Fish, Secretary of State, presented an ultimatum to the Spanish authorities demanding the release of the prisoners, the surrender of the vessel, the payment of an indemnity, that the American flag be saluted, and the officers responsible for the executions punished, and insisting upon a favorable reply within twelve days.

Our diplomatic representatives, both in Madrid and in Cuba, were treated with discourtesy, and while Spain was presenting one face to them she, through her ambassador at Washington, was acting in quite a different manner. Some friction developed between the State Department and General Sickles, who thought the former taking the affair out of his hands, and he tendered his resignation, but was prevailed upon to occupy his position until the question was settled. He then resigned and asked that all correspondence should be published.*

*For further details the reader is referred to the Executive Documents for the year 1873, where the whole correspondence can be found.

In addition to surrendering the ship and disclaiming any thought of indignity to the flag, the Spanish government paid $80,000 to the families of the American citizens who had been massacred.

The affair very nearly involved the United States in war with Spain, and probably President Grant's vigorous preparations and cool head saved us. His special message of 1873, which follows, shows how serious he considered the danger.

"The embargoing of American estates in Cuba; cruelty to American citizens detected in no act of hostility to the Spanish government; the murdering of prisoners taken with arms in their hands, and, finally, the capture upon high seas of a vessel sailing under the United States registry, have culminated in an outburst of indignation that has seemed for a time to threaten war. Pendino, negotiations between the United States and the government of Spain on the subject of this capture, I have authorized the Secretary of the Navy to put our navy on a war footing, to the extent, at least, of the entire annual appropriation for that branch of the service, trusting to Congress and the public opinion of the American people to justify my action.

"On the 26th day of September, 1870, the 'Virginius' was registered in the custom house at New York as the property of a citizen of the United States, he having first made oath, as required by law, that he was the true and only owner of the said vessel, and that there was no subject or citizen of any foreign prince or state directly or indirectly, by way of trust, confidence, or otherwise, interested therein.

"Having complied with the requisites of the statute in that behalf, she cleared in the usual way for the port of Curacoa, and on or about the 4th day of October, 1870, sailed for that port. It is not disputed that she made the voyage according to her clearance, nor that, from that day to this, she has not returned within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States. It is also understood that she preserved her American papers, and that when within foreign ports she made the practice of putting forth a claim to American nationality, which was recognized by the authorities at such ports.

"When, therefore, she left the port of Kingston, under the 'flag of the United States, she would appear to have had, as against all powers except the United States, the right to fly that flag, and to claim its protection, as enjoyed by all regularly documented vessels registered as part of our commercial marine.

No state of war existed, conferring upon a maritime power the right to molest and detain upon the high seas a documented vessel; and it cannot be pretended that the 'Virginius' had placed herself without the pale of all law by acts of piracy against the human race.

If her papers were irregular or fraudulent, the offense was one against the laws of the United States, justifiable only in their tribunals.

" It is a well-established principle, asserted by the United States from the beginning of their national independence, recognized by Great Britain and other maritime powers, and stated by the Senate in a resolution passed unanimously on the 16th of June, 1858, that

"American vessels on the high seas in time of peace, bearing the American flag, remain under the jurisdiction of the country to which they belong, and therefore any visitation, molestation, or detention of such vessel by force, or by the exhibition of force, on the part of a foreign power, is in derogation of the sovereignty of the United States.'

"When, therefore, it became known that the Virginius had been captured on the high seas by a Spanish man-of-war; that the American flag had been hauled down by the captors; that the vessel had been carried to a Spanish port; and that Spanish tribunals were taking jurisdiction over the persons of those found on her, and exercising that jurisdiction upon American citizens, not only in violation of the rules of international law, but in contravention of the provisions of the treaty of 1795, I directed a demand to be made upon Spain for the restoration of the vessel, and for the return of the survivors to the protection of the United States, for a salute to the flag, and for the punishment of the offending parties.

"The principles upon which these demands rested could not be seriously questioned, but it was suggested by the Spanish government that there were grave doubts whether the 'Virginius' was entitled to the character given her by her papers; and that therefore it might be proper for the United States, after the surrender of the vessel and the survivors, to dispense with the salute to the flag, should that fact be established to their satisfaction.

"This seemed reasonable and just. I therefore assented to it, on the assurance that Spain would then declare that no insult to the flag of the United States had been intended.

"I also authorized an agreement to be made that, should it be shown to the satisfaction of this government that the 'Virginius' was improperly bearing the flag, proceedings should be instituted in our courts for the punishment of the offense committed against the United States. On her part Spain undertook to proceed against those who had offended the sovereignty of the United States, or who had violated their treaty rights.

"The surrender of the vessel and the survivors to the jurisdiction of the tribunals of the United States was an admission of the principles upon which our demands had been founded. I therefore had no hesitation in agreeing to the arrangement finally made between the two governments -- an arrangement which was moderate and just, and calculated to cement the good relations which have so long existed between Spain and the United States,

"Under this agreement the 'Virginius,' with the American flag flying, was delivered to the Navy of the United States at Bahia Honda, in the island of Cuba, on the 16th ultimo. She was in an unseaworthy condition. In the passage to New York she encountered one of the most tempestuous of our winter storms. At the risk of their lives the officers and crew placed in charge of her attempted to keep her afloat. Their efforts were unavailing and she sank off Cape Fear. The prisoners who survived the massacres were surrendered at Santiago de Cuba on the 18th ultimo, and reached the port of New York in safety.

"The evidence submitted on the part of Spain to establish the fact that the 'Virginius' at the time of her capture was improperly. bearing the flag of the United States is transmitted herewith, together with the opinion of the Attorney-General thereon, and a copy of the note of the Spanish minister, expressing, on behalf of his government, a disclaimer of an intent of indignity to the flag of the United States. *

*Executive Documents, 1873.

Massacre of Havana Students

Two years previous to the shooting of the "Virginius" prisoners, an event had occurred in Havana that shocked the civilized world. A member of the Cuban "Volunteers" died, and the body was placed in a public tomb in Havana. Later, the tomb is said to have been defaced by writing thereon things not complimentary to the volunteers. Students of the university were suspected of being implicated in the affair, and on the complaint of the volunteer corps forty-three of these were arrested, charged with having defaced the tomb, and brought to trial.

The proceedings were marked by much bitter feeling. However, a brave and honorable officer of the regular army of Spain appeared before the court-martial and defended them with such ability that they were acquitted. The volunteers, used to having their own way in everything, appealed to the Governor-General, and prevailed upon him to order a new trial before a second court-martial, which they "packed" until two-thirds of that body was made up of volunteers. The result was a foregone conclusion, for the volunteers now appeared as accuser, judge and executioner.

All of the students were found guilty. Eight were sentenced to be shot, and the others to long terms of imprisonment at hard labor. The sentence was carried out the next morning, November 27, 1871, 15,000 of Havana's "gentlemen soldiers" turning out in force to massacre eight school boys.

The affair excited the greatest indignation throughout the United States. The punishment was so obviously inconsistent that the Spanish Cortes was compelled to notice it by public censure. No other attempt to punish the perpetrators of the deed was made.

The students of Havana now observe "November 27th" with appropriate ceremonies, although great care is taken that it may not furnish occasion for a conflict with the authorities.

Why the Cubans Rebelled

The Cuban debt began in 1864 by the issue of bonds to the amount of $3,000,000 for expense incurred by Spain in the wars of Santo Domingo, Peru and Mexico. There is no good reason why this should not have been paid by the peninsula, but it was saddled upon Cuba. To this has been added the expense of every insurrection in Cuba and the salary of a horde of Spanish officials, and indirectly, through unparalleled corruption, as much more has been bled from the island by thievish officials.

In 1884 the island paid for pensions of Spanish officers $468,000; pay of Spanish officers (retired), $918,000; pay of Spanish officers (active), $10,115,420; salary of governor-general, $50,000; for the maintenance of church and clergy (all Spaniards), $379,757; pay of Spanish soldiers doing police duty, $2,537,119. Measured by American standpoints, the pay of the Spanish officials is wholly out of proportion.

The governor-general receives $50,000 as much as the president of the United States; the governors of each of the provinces receive $12,000, while the governor of the State of New York, who represents four times as many people and fifty times as much wealth as the whole island, receives $10,000. Cuba pays two archbishops $15,000 each. In addition to the enormous salaries paid all these officers appointed by the Spanish crown, Cuba has stolen from her revenues each year perhaps as much as the revenue regularly raised.

General Pando, now commanding a body of Spanish troops in Cuba, stated in a public speech made in 1890, that he held the statistics of a series of embezzlements reaching more than $40,000,000.

A member of the Spanish Cortes in 1891 declared that there were 350 persons employed in Cuba as representatives of the crown, against whom proceedings had been taken for fraud, and not one of whom had ever been punished.

In June, 1895, the public debt of Cuba had nearly reached the enormous sum of $300,000,000, an average for each person of $187.00. The public debt of the United States averages for each person about $14.00.

Cuba is almost wholly an agricultural country. It produces but a small portion of the necessities for home consumption and pays for the rest with but two products, tobacco and sugar. The sugar-cane industries of Cuba have had to encounter keen competition from the sugarbeet industries of Europe. The tobacco industry has been handicapped by heavy export duties, which have enhanced the price of the raw material to the manufacturer until he has been driven to use inferior grades and the tobacco-growing industries of other nations have been further stimulated by Spain's exactions upon her own colonies.

The unjust laws and exorbitant taxes have driven large numbers of citizens from Cuba that the island needs, and it is estimated that there are now in the United States alone 40,000 Cubans.

Staggering under a burden of debt, deprived of privileges that Americans deem the inherent rights of man, with no hope that the future might hold alleviation for their miseries, what wonder that the inhabitants again take up arms in behalf of their independence.

Insurrection Planned

The present insurrection was organized about the close of 1894 by Jose Marti (the father of the revolution), who was then in New York. He chartered three vessels, loaded them with arms and ammunition, intending to make a landing in Cuba, but the expedition was stopped at Fernandina, Florida, by the United States authorities.

February 24th, 1895, had been fixed upon as the day for strikinog the first blow. Marti left New York in Jauuary, 1895, for Santo Domingo, where he joined Maximo Gomez and other Cuban leaders. Although these leaders apparently did not reach the island until May, when the eventful 24th day of February arrived, twenty-four daring spirits at Ybarra, in the province of Matanzas, defied the authorities and declared Cubafree. In spite of their lack of leaders the insurgents made rapid headway from the first. Several encounters took place in March and April, usually with advantage to the insurgents.

April 1st General Maceo landed from Costa Rica and joined the Cuban army. Ten days later Jose Marti, the head of the revolution; General Maximo Gomez, the general-in-chief, and some others landed in the province of Santiago, and the news of their presence wonderfully increased the insurgents' forces. Spain soon recognized the gravity of affairs and made preparations to send Martinez Campos, the leader of Spanish forces in the "Ten Years' War," to take charge of matters in Cuba.

The "Allianca" Affair

The colonial authorities were much exercised over reported filibustering expeditions fitted out in the United States, and were suspicious of every strange vessel. March 8, 1895, an American steamer, the "Allianca," running between New York and Colon, Panama, was fired upon when near the coast of Cuba and in the regular channel for coast vessels, the Spanish man-of-war suspecting that the "Allianca" was carrying contraband of war for the Cuban insurgents. Captain Crossman of the American ship refused to stop, and putting on full speed was soon able to leave the Spaniard behind.

A complaint was made to the State Department, who in turn protested vigorously, to the Spanish government against interference with American steamers. "Forcible interference with them cannot be claimed as a belligerent act whether they pass within three miles of the Cuban coast or not and can under no circumstances be tolerated when no state of war exists."*

*State Department.

The Spanish government made an apology, disavowed the act and relieved the Spanish officer of his command.

April 16th General Campos arrived in Cuba with reinforcements and unlimited power, and it was expected that he would make short work with the insurrection which was at that time confined to the eastern provinces.

Campos, upon his arrival, prepared to confine the insurgents to the eastern provinces and built across the island a line of forts called trocha (trenches), a system of defenses he had successfully used in the previous "Ten Years' War."

The first trocha was no barrier to the insurgents under Gomez and Maceo. The second one proved no more effectual. Campos, retreating toward Havana, drew a third, shorter and stronger one, from Matanzas across the island south. On the railroad running from Havana to Batabana he placed numerous freight cars plated with boiler iron and pierced with loopholes for rifles. These cars were kept moving almost constantly, but in spite of all his elaborate preparation Maceo passed the line and reached the rich tobacco district of Pinar del Rio, having marched the whole length of the island.

Campos' failure to subdue the revolution and his retreat upon Havana aggravated the "Peninsulars" so much that they demanded his recall and he was succeeded on the 10th of February, 1896, by General Weyler.

Weyler

Weyler constructed a fourth trocha across the island, about twenty-five miles west of Havana, which has become famous enough to warrant a description. It consists of a ditch nine feet wide and filled with water on the levels. On each side is a barbed wire fence and east of the ditch is a fairly good road which was constantly patrolled by cavalry and flying artillery. On the west bank at intervals were block houses and earthworks constantly garrisoned and connected with each other by telephone. This was supposed to be impassable, but Gomez and Maceo have shown it slight courtesy.

Marti soon fell in battle at Don Rios, May 19, 1895, but not until he had kindled a conflagration that all Spain's forces could not subdue. Upon landing in Cuba he had issued a call for representatives to a constitutional convention. It met in September, after his death. Forty representatives met, twenty from the army and twenty from the provinces, every province being represented except Pinar del Rio. On the 16th of September they adopted a constitution, and two days later elected a President, Vice- President, Secretary of State, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Treasury, Generalin-Chief and Lieutenant-General. The convention passed laws establishing the political boundaries of states and districts, establishing post-offices, providing for the collection of taxes and regulating marriages. The whole appears fairly well on paper, but it is doubtful if it exists as a full-fledged institution elsewhere. At present, Bartolome Masso is President, Domingo Mendoz Capote, Vice-President, and Maximo Gomez Generalin-Chief.

Cuban Capita

Their capital, called Cubitas, is situated on top of a mountain, twenty-five miles east of Puerto Principe. The sides of the mountain are exceedingly steep. The top is reached only by narrow paths, and a few desperate and daring men could easily defend it against a large force. Neither could it well be reduced by starvation, for the top is nearly level, contains about a square mile of fertile land, easily worked, where corn, sweet potatoes and other products common to the island are grown. The insurgents have erected here some wooden buildings, a dynamite factory, etc.

The surface of Cuba is particularly well adapted to guerrilla warfare, and one needs but to look at the history of Jamaica to see how prolonged such a struggle might be. When the British took possession of that island and sought to subdue the native inhabitants, part of them, called Maroons, broke away, seized strong positions in the interior, and for more than seventy years kept up an armed resistance to the British power. The mountains of Chile today contain remnants of the wild race, the Araucuns, who have never been thoroughly subdued.

Death of Maceo

December 4, 1896, General Antonio Maceo crossed the trocha west of Havana with a few men and appeared within that province. He began to rapidly collect his forces who were coming in small parties and soon had several hundred men under his command. The Spaniards at once sent a division in pursuit of him. They came upon the Cubans entrenched behind a stone fence in the San Pedro plantation and were warmly received. Upon the first repulse of the Spaniads, Maceo, believing it an opportune time for a charge, put himself at the head of his men and dashed at the enemy machete in hand. He fell within fifty paces of the Spanish line pierced by two balls.

The Spaniards not recognizing the corpse as that of their dreaded opponent left it upon their retreat and it was recovered by the Cubans and buried in a secret place, those present taking oath not to reveal the spot and renewing their vows not to lay down their arms until Cuba should be free.

The "Competitor" Incident

The American schooner "Competitor" left Key West with about forty men under Colonel Monzon of the Cuban army with arms and ammunition. A landing was made on the north coast of Pinar del Rio. The men and all the stores were put ashore, when a Spanish gunboat appeared in the offing. The "Competitor" hoisted an American flag and tried to escape, but was boarded and captured and the following taken prisoners: Alfredo Laborde, Teodoro de la Maza, Dr. Elias Bedia, John Milton of Kansas and William Gildear, an Englishman. They were taken to Havana April 30th.

On the 8th of May they were tried by a naval court- martial, apparently organized expressly to convict them, for the only testimony taken was that of the Spanish commander who had caetured them. Four declared themselves Americans, and the 10th of May they were sentenced to death, Weyler approving the sentence. They would have been executed on the 12th but for the energetic demands of General Lee.

"I earnestly and vigorously protested against the arrest of these American citizens, telling General Weyler that it was in violation of the treaty and protocol between Spain and the United States, which, in my opinion, limited the confinement 'in communicado' to seventy-two hours. 'In communicado' is a Spanish term, meaning literally without communication. And these Americans, without any charges against them that I could ascertain, and without warning, and without the knowledge of their friends and relatives, were arrested and thrown into these little in communicado' cells, about eight by ten feet, stone floors and dark, and kept in these horrid little holes -- for days and days without being allowed to see and talk with anyone. I told Weyler that in our country the law presumed every man innocent until he was proved guilty; but by the Spanish process, every man was guilty and they did not even give him an opportunity to prove his innocence.

But he replied that he had published a proclamation establishing martial law, and that the terms of that proclamation superseded the stipulations of the treaty. To which I answered that the terms of treaties between two countries at peace could not be set aside, changed or altered, except by the action of one or both of the contracting parties, and that his proclamation was therefore inoperative where its stipulations came in conflict with the treaty mandates.

Murder of Dr. Ruiz

The situation, however, remained unchanged until finally Dr. Ruiz, an American dentist who was practicing his profession in a town called Guanabacoa, some four miles from Havana, was arrested. A railroad train between Havana and this town had been captured by the insurgents and the next day the Spanish authorities arrested a large number of persons in Guanabacoa charging them with giving information which enabled the troops, under their enterprising young leader, Aranguren, to make the capture; and among these persons arrested was this American. He was a strongly built, athletic man, who confined himself strictly to the practice of his profession and let politics severely alone. He had nothing to do with the train being captured, but that night was visiting a neighbor opposite, until nine or ten o'clock, when he returned to his house and went to bed.

He was arrested by the police the next morning; thrown into an 'incommunicado' cell; kept there over 350 hours, and was finally (when half-crazed by this terrible imprisonment and calling for his wife and children) struck over the head with a 'billy' in the bands of a brutal jailor and died from its effects. Ruiz went into that cell an unusually healthy and vigorous man and came out a corpse.

After this tragedy I determined no longer to submit to more violations of the treaty rights of American citizens and therefore, after viewing this dead body, went to my office, and finding that there was an American named Scott who had been arrested and was already 'incommunicado' a much longer time than the prescribed limit of seventy-two hours, I demanded that he be released from 'in communicado,' and at the end of three days he was released, and since the hour I made the issue no American citizens have been thrown into 'incommunicado' cells, and all Americans who were arrested afterwards for supposed offenses or captured in the insurgent ranks were invariably turned over to me, and I sent them to the United States." *

*Gen. Fitzhugh Lee. in "The Fortnightly Review," June, 1898.

How Cuba's War Has Been Conducted

Of the methods of conducting the war both by the Cubans and Spaniards, the less said the better. If Weyler by his "reconcentrado order" has ruined the country, Gomez has no less certainly ruined the towns that he has been able to capture. If Weyler ordered within the "zone of cultivation" or "zone of starvation" all the pacificos, Gomez showed hardly less severity in pressing into the service every able-bodied Cuban whom he found.

The Reconcentrado Order

The style of guerrilla warfare practiced by the insurgents could be maintained for years, because the wonderfully fertile soil tilled by farmers who were in sympathy with the insurrection would produce sufficient food to feed the rebel army. General Weyler saw he would be unable to reduce the rebels to terms so long as they had such supplies to fall back upon. It was then lie issued his famous "reconcentrado order," by whose terms he compelled "the old men, women and children to leave their homes and come within the nearest Spanish fortified lines, pains being taken after they were driven from their little farms to burn their houses, tear up their plant beds, and drive off and confiscate the few cattle, hogs and chickens that they were obliged to leave."

The United States was naturally shocked at the brutality of this order, and saw with great indignation, some 400,000 of these poor innocent war victims forced away from where they could subsist themselves, to the Spanish lines where they could obtain nothing and within which nothing was tendered. As a consequence, over 200,000 (principally women and children and non- combatants) died from starvation, and starvation alone. History presents nowhere such an appalling record; nor do the military annals anywhere furnish such a horrible spectacle, the result of a military order, based upon a supposed military necessity.

General Weyler, if anything, is a soldier, trained to no other career, and one who believes that everything is fair in war, and every means justifiable which will ultimately write success upon his standards. He did not propose to make war with velvet paws, but to achieve his purpose of putting down the insurrection if he had to wade through, up to the visor of his helmet, the blood of every Cuban man, woman and child on the island. And yet, I found him -- in official intercourse -- affable, pleasant and agreeable. He was always polite and courteous to me, and told me more than once that he wished I would remain in my position there as Consul-General as long as he did as Governor and Captain-General. He was small in stature, with a long face and square chin, and wearing side-whiskers and a moustache; quick, nervous in his manner and gait; decided in his opinions, he was loved by some and hated and feared by others." *

*Gen. Fitzhugh Lee, in "The Fortnightly Review," June, 1898

The farmer was compelled to grow such crops as would supply the insurgents with food and forbidden under severe penalties from growing anything that would supply the Spaniards with revenue. If one dared to travel without a passport from an insurgent general, he was likely to be captured and impressed into the army.

The losses of the insurgent forces in their skirmishes with the Spaniards had also to be made good by these same peaceful inhabitants who were unceremoniously pressed into the rebel army, and horribly tortured to death if they refused to enlist, or deserted. And even when they obeyed all these orders with alacrity, as was generally the case, they were not by any means sure that their goods, their daughters or their lives, were safe from the avarice, the lust, or the vengeance of the colored man. Farm houses, manufactories, huts, were frequently burned down by the rebels, not only because the occupants were supposed to be unfriendly, or even because they were suspected of being lukewarm in the service, but in many cases the dwellings were reduced to ashes solely because they were too near a Spanish fort or too far from a Cuban prefecture.

The following extract from the instructions officially given to the insurgent prefects and sub-prefects by the Provisional Government will enable the reader to understand the determination of the rebels to force every inhabitant of the island to join in the revolt against Spain:

Circular A1. Republic of Cuba. Governmental Council. Delegation. For the purpose of improving the service of the prefecture and sub-prefectures, and in order to introduce better order into the services of the Revolution, I hereby give you the following instructions: You will make clear to all inhabitants residing in your zone the obligation imposed upon them of working for the Revolution, calling their attention to the fact that once they live under the protection of the Republic, they are considered to be soldiers of the liberating army. * * *

At all times you are invested with the right of utilizing the individuals of your zone in everything connected with the service of the prefecture or sub-prefecture, whereas no excuse whatever on their part is admissable. Sluggishness will not be allowed under any pretext, and all those inhabitants who, in your judgment are not desirable in this place, will have to leave in seventy-two hours, for which purpose you will give them notice in advance. * * *

When the prefects or sub-prefects deem it opportune, they will form companies of inhabitants for the purpose of 'lighting the candles' (burning down farm houses and villages) destroying houses, (Tranaries, railways, telegraphs, telephones, of lifting cattle, and of doing anything else that may seem serviceable for the Revolution.

The means by which the pacificos or peaceful farmers of the interior were forced to become rebels are fairly well known and at the same time reveal one of the abundant sources of the stream of reconcentrados whose number and sufferings had been laid to General Weyler's charge." *

*Dr. E. J. Dillon in "Contemporary Review," June, 1898.

There are but few records of exchanges of prisoners among them. This alone is significant, for each side must have taken some prisoners. We should not expect much mercy to be shown rebels by Spaniards, neither should we logically expect much to be shown by those of Spanish blood or mixed Spanish and negro blood who have been forced into rebellion by Spanish exactions.

The Spanish forces have always been better armed, and numerically much stronger than their opponents, and it was plainly for their interest to come to pitched battle. It is just as evidently to the interest of the other side to break up into small armed bands and avoid pitched battle's. The broken surface and dense tropical growth of Cuba affords ideal grounds for guerrilla warfare. The Cubans have not expected to win their independence by fighting heavy battles. Their war was not against Spanish flesh, but against Spanish credit. Hence they left nothing undone that would permit them to embarrass the Spaniards in this respect. They forbade the planters to grind sugar cane. It was equally for the interest of the Spaniards that the crops should be harvested. De Lome said of General Campos, "He knew perfectly well that if the sugar crop could be gathered the back of the insurrection would be broken." Because of this the Cubans burned the sugar plantations.

This was not simply a mad destruction of property but a deliberate and desperate policy. If the resources of the country were destroyed, Spain could collect no taxes; if the planters had nothing to sell, it would be impossible for them to buy and Spain could collect no import duties. The vulnerable point for the Spaniards to attack was the Cuban army; the vulnerable point of attack for the Cuban army was Spanish credit.

Such conditions and such a war were sure to inflict suffering upon the innocent. The desolation caused has been simply horrible; 200,000 people have been starved to death, millions of dollars of property have been destroyed, railroad trains have been blown up with dynamite without any consideration for innocent passengers thereon.

Before the intervention of the United States, we were told that all the Cuban needed to win his freedom was recognition of belligerency. It seems now that we were misinformed.

The Cubans are excellent guerrilla fighters, but since the death of Maceo have been good for little else. Under Garcia they proved themselves of little value to General Shafter in the capture of Santiago. Gomez's army was not strong enough to effect a junction with the United States forces when several attempts to land supplies for him from the steamship "Gussie" were made.

There is no doubt but the Spaniards have been guilty of deeds of horrible cruelty, and it is not safe to say that the Cubans' conduct has always been in strict keeping with the rules of civilized warfare. It is stated upon what seems to be good authority that Captain Evans of the "Iowa" and Lieutenant Wainwright of the "Gloucester" threatened to turn their guns on the Cubans who were picking off the prisoners from Cervera's fleet as they struggled through the water from the burning vessels.

The record of the Spanish-American colonies now independent, seems to prove conclusively that people suddenly freed from Spanish rule are not for a long time capable of self-government. Spanish misrule certainly explains and may in some degree excuse, but it cannot justify such warfare as this. The wisdom of President McKinley in refusing recognition to the so-called Cuban Republic of the insurgents is daily becoming more apparent.

The Cuba of the future

Given a government that will guarantee capital against the impositions it has suffered in the past hundred years in that island, make the laborer sure that he will not be taxed to death or have his throat cut, and we shall expect to see the magnificent resources of the island develop with marvelous rapidity. There is no soil more fertile than the best parts of Cuba. Its vast forests, at present covering a large portion of the surface of the island, contain timber valuable for ship-building and commerce. Even in the recent unsettled condition of the island, two American companies thought it worth while to develop and begin the operation of iron mines there.

A fine quality of marble is found in the Isle of Pines, and the extreme eastern and western portions of the island produce a fair quality of copper.

The chief wealth of the island will always remain in its extremely fertile soil. Owing to the absence of frost, two crops of grains, like rice or Indian corn, can be raised in one year.

We believe that under a stable government American capital will flow in and the island soon prove its just claim to the title "The Pearl of the Antilles."

Next: Chapter 7: International Law