This article, in a slightly modified form, first appeared in the January 1994 issue of the Seven Years War Association Journal. This excellent Journal appears quarterly and is edited by Jim Purky. It is available for $30 a year by writing to Purky at 3127 Park Place, Evanston, IL 60201.

The following is the first installment of a two-part article providing an overview of the military campaigns of the Ottoman Empire in the 18th Century.

The Ottoman Empire ceased to be an offensive threat to Europe following its repulse at the gates of Vienna in 1683. However, it remained a formidable foe throughout much of the 18th Century, if for no other reason than its ability to field immense armies within its own borders.

The Ottomans' principal opponents in the 18th Century were the Persians in the east, the Russians to the north, and, to a lesser extent, the Austrians in the northwest. In this first installment we will deal with the extensive fighting between the Persians and the Ottomans between 1723 and 1746.

War with Persia 1723-1736

The Treaty of Passarovitz in 1718 ended a long series of wars in the Balkans between Austria and the Ottoman Empire. Although it lost the Bant and the territory around Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was now able to look at opportunities to expand its influence in the east at the expense of Persia, then a prosperous region lacking a strong ruler.

This same area attracted the attention of Russia under Peter the Great. While the Russians had been heavily defeated by the Ottomans in 1711 at the Battle of Pruth, they had by now recovered. Russia, had just ended its war with Sweden in 1721 and was looking for new worlds to conquer. While the Ottomans considered their next course of action, Russia struck first.

In 1723, Russia invaded the northern portion of Persia. This brought the Ottoman Empire to the brink of war. The Sultan and his advisors decided that they should try to retake the former Ottoman lands currently under Persian control before the Russians could annex them. The Porte (the Ottoman government) used religion to stir up the people.

Ottoman forces invaded and quickly conquered the various kingdoms and khanates which made up what we now think of as Georgia in the Caucasus. Another offensive was launched from Baghdad into the southern areas of Persia.

France did all it could, diplomatically, to keep the Russians and the Ottomans from getting into a confrontation. France's interest in this theater concerned Austria. The French felt that a strong Ottoman Empire would continue to pose a threat to Austria, thus diverting Austrian military resources away from France.

On June 24, 1724, Russia and the Porte came to an agreement dividing up northern and western Persia. The Persian ruler, Shah Tahmasp, did not agree to these terms so the Ottoman forces continued their advance into Persian territory.

During this time the Afghans took advantage of the internal strife in Persia and expanded into the region. This soon led them into direct conflict with the invading Ottomans. By 1730 the Ottomans had disposed of the Afghan threat and now occupied Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and the areas around Tabriz and Hamadan.

At the same time, a strong military general, Nadir (see biographic sketch on page 6), began to consolidate Shah Tahmasp's power in Persia. Tahmasp asked the Ottomans to relinquish their hold on Persian territory, but before the Porte could respond, Nadir launched an attack against the Ottoman occupation forces. The Ottomans lost Hamadan and Tabriz during the initial assault. In Tabriz and several other cities there were cases where the Ottoman garrisons mutinied.

When news of these setbacks reached the Porte, it caused great disturbance. The war would have to be continued at all costs. Another army was assembled under the leadership of Grand Vezir Ibrahim Pasha. But before the army could advance, a revolt swept Sultan Ahmad III and Grand Vezir Ibrahim from office.

But Persia had its own problems. The Afghans had again revolted and this drew Nadir's attention away from his planned invasion of what is modern-day Iraq. Finally, in January 1731, Shah Tahmasp tried to steal some of Nadir's glory and attacked the Ottomans with a force of his own. Unfortunately for Tahmasp, the Ottomans cut his supply lines and he was forced to fall back.

On March 26, 1731, the Ottomans brought Tahmasp to battle at Hamadan. At first the Persians fared quite well; their cavalry drove the Ottoman cavalry from the field. However the Persian infantry was no match for the Ottoman infantry, particularly once the Janissaries were committed. Tahmasp was lucky to escape alive and most of his army was destroyed. This victory enabled the Ottomans to recover all the territory they had previously lost to Nadir.

A Fragile Peace

On Jan. 10, 1732, a peace treaty was signed between the Grand Vezir and Shah Tahmasp, returning western Iran and Azerbaijan to the Persians while the Ottomans were confirmed in their control of the Caucasus. This treaty was not well received by the Sultan. He had not authorized the surrender of Azerbaijan and the treaty also left some Sunni Muslim territories under the control of the Persians. However, the Grand Vezir had been eager to conclude a treaty before Nadir could return from his campaign against the Afghans.

By August of 1732, Nadir was back and essentially in control of Persia. Both sides prepared for war, knowing that it was inevitable. Nadir resumed hostilities with the Ottomans on Dec. 10, 1732. His main objective was the capture of Baghdad and he defeated two Ottoman armies, numbering about 10,000 men each, during his advance on the city.

The Siege of Baghdad

In January 1733, Nadir surrounded Baghdad and a siege was begun. The Persian army was sorely deficient in siege equipment, so it had to starve the Ottoman garrison into submission. After six months, the garrison was on the verge of capitulating to the Persians when it heard of an approaching relief army under the command of Topal Osman.

Under cover of darkness Nadir drew away all but 12,000 men from the siege of Baghdad so the defenders would not know that he had left. On July 19, 1733, at a point along the Tigris River about 30 miles north of the city, Nadir encountered the approaching relief force. The Ottomans were fortified along the river with their artillery entrenched. The Ottoman army was close to 80,000 strong, slightly outnumbering the Persians.

The battle commenced at 8 a.m. as the lead elements of each army began to engage, with the Ottoman artillery shelling the advancing Persians. At 9 a.m., Nadir launched his main attack using a strike force of 50,000 men, mainly Persians and Afghans, divided into three divisions. Nadir's men advanced steadily, driving back the center of the Ottoman line and overrunning several pieces of artillery. At this critical point a group of Kurds in the Ottoman army broke and fled.

Nadir was near victory when Topal Osman committed his reserves. The counter attack by 20,000 men halted the Persian advance. Nadir's own horse was shot from under him but he grabbed another and kept fighting.

As the day wore on the heat and lack of water started to affect the Persians. A strong wind blew sand into their faces and, with the Ottomans holding the line on the river, water was scarce.

Then, for a second time, Nadir's horse was killed under him. Panic swept through the Persian ranks. Nadir and his generals knew that they could not restore order and decided to retreat with what they could. Over 30,000 Persians and 20,000 Ottomans were killed in the battle. There are no records of any wounded Persians making it back to Nadir's camp.

Finally, on July 24, the siege of Baghdad was lifted after 100,000 deaths in the city. Topal Osman was forced to send most of his army off to Kirkuk since the countryside around Baghdad had been so wasted that it could not support a large army.

The Persians Invade Again

Nadir quickly organized a new army and by September was again eager to face Topal Osman. Once again he found the Ottomans entrenched. He tried to draw them from their defensive positions, but was unsuccessful. Finally, on Nov. 9, 1733, both armies fought again at the Battle of Leilca (near Kirkuk). Heavy fighting raged across the battlefield for over two hours. As in the previous encounter, the Persians started to push in the center. Topal Osman once again tried to organize a counter-attack, but this time he was killed in the process. This caused the Ottoman army to take flight, suffering huge casualties (20,000 to 40,000) in the rout.

Nadir now wanted to try to capture Baghdad, but an ongoing revolt in Persia compelled him to sign a treaty with Ahmad Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Baghdad. Ahmad Pasha would later inform the Porte that his only reason for signing the treaty was to gain time to raise another army to oppose the Persians.

The Ottomans did raise another army and prepared for the next Persian attack in the south, but instead the Persians invaded the Caucasus in the north. Tiflis, the capital of Georgia, was put under siege with the help of the Georgians. The Russians provided artillery specialists to help the Persians capture the Khanate of Shirvan (Baku) and Daghistan.

However, this was Russia's last move in this stage of the conflict. In 1734, after loosing more than 120,000 men, mainly to disease, the Russians abandoned the Causcacus and signed a treaty with Nadir surrending the region to him.

By 1735, the Persians had defeated the Ottoman relief force of 80,000 men at the Battle of Baghavand, and went on to capture Derbent, Kirkuk, Shehrizor and parts of the Caucasus. The Persians had now conquered all the land they wanted and were eager to settle with the Ottomans. Nadir Shah knew that his country was militarily exhausted. He also felt that his next objective should be India.

Overtures were made to Nadir by Russia, which was planning its own attack the Ottomans in the Balkans, urging the Persians to continue the fight. Nadir advised the Russians that unless they aimed to capture Istanbul, he did not see how a continuation of war would benefit his country.

Instead, Nadir developed some new religious policies that favored the Sunnis and caused the temporary downfall of Shia religious influence in Persia. This action allowed the Ottomans to accept Persian control over the conquered areas.

A treaty was signed on Oct. 17, 1736. Although the treaty was signed by Persian representatives, it was never formally ratified by Nadir. Nonetheless, a truce lasted for six years between the Persian and Ottoman Empires, due mainly to Nadir's preoccupation with India during this time.

However, this was not be a period of peace for the Ottomans. Between 1736 and 1739 they were forced to once again fight the Austrians and the Russians, defeating the Austrians and fighting the Russians to a standstill. This war, as well as the disasterous Russian war of 1768-1774, will be covered in the next installment of this article.

The Resumption of the War with Persia 1742-1746

Nadir had invaded India in May of 1738. The reasons from this invasion were many: the need to expand his empire, a desire for plunder to fund his planned campaigns against the Ottomans, and the knowlege of the weakening of the Mughal Empire. The Indian campaign occupied Nadir for six years and ended in the sacking of Delhi.

In 1742, news of Nadir Shah's victories in India caused great alarm in the Ottoman Empire. In April of 1742, commanders along the frontier with Persia were put on alert to the possibilities of a coming war.

Nadir Shah countered with demands for partial control of the Islamic Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina. This demand was completely unacceptable to the Sunni population. Sultan Mahmut I, hearing reports of military set backs for the Persians in the Daghistan region, decided to push the issue. He placed heavy tolls on Persian merchants and Persian officials, assigned to escort the Persians making the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, were turned back after being tortured.

As a result, Nadir decided that war was unavoidable and assembled an army estimated at 325,000 men. Sultan Mahmut responded by having the Grand Mufti issuing a Fetwa, a religious legal opinion, making it legal to kill all Persians whose religion was contrary to Islam (meaning death to all Shia). Mahmut also began to meddle in Persian internal politics by supporting one of two pretenders to the throne who came forward at this time.

Nadir decided to attack Mosul first. He razed every village along his invasion route, killing or enslaving all inhabitants regardless of their religious affiliation. He established his siege lines around Mosul on Sept. 27, 1743, and commenced a bombardment of the city with 160 cannon and 230 mortars. The bombardment continued for eight days and there were numerous mining and counter-mining operations conducted during the period. Seven Persian assaults on the city were repulsed. In other areas he did succeed in taking Kirkuk but his attack on Baghdad was a failure. In all, the 1742-43 attack in the south was accomplishing little more than creating a devastating loss of lives.

To further complicate matters, during the siege of Mosul, Nadir received news that China was contemplating a declaration of war on Persia. Also, the two pretenders to the throne were picking up support and threatening Nadir's hold on Persia. As a result, he was forced to suspend his invasion of the south.

However, by 1745, he was again on the offensive, this time in the north. In August 1745 he fought the battle of Murad Tappa near Kars. Nadir routed an Ottoman army of 150,000 men when he led the Abdalis contingent of his army, which numbered about 40,000 men, into the flank of the Ottomans. This attack resulted in the death of the Ottoman commander, Yegen Pasha, and loss of all the Ottoman artillery and baggage.

Nadir now felt he could get favorable peace terms from the Ottomans. The general feeling in Persia was that they had suffered enough and since all of the former Persian territory had been recovered through the war, the hostilities should not continue.

Although they had suffered devastating losses of both territory and manpower, the Ottomans refused to come to terms unless Nadir dropped his demands for Persian protection of the Shias living in Ottoman territory. Nadir finally dropped these demands and a treaty was signed on Sept. 4, 1746.

This peace lasted until 1820 when the two old enemies once again crossed swords.

Related

The Great Persian War
Persian Primer
Nadir Shah, King of Persia 1736-1747

Part 2: Ottoman Empire in the 18th Century