For God, Alfonso, and Spain

Military Forces, Organization,
and Tactics

by George Arnold

MILITARY FORCES

Before the coming of the Almoravids, the troops available to fight on the Iberian peninsula in the late 11th century shared many common features. This was true wether the troops were from the Christian north of Moorish Andalusia.

On both sides, the mounted warrior stood at the top of the military hierarchy. Infantry, however, also was of considerable prestige and usefulness. In the north, this was so because the mountainous terrain hindered cavalry operations. In Andalusia, infantry would grow in importance as the Reconquista, got under way and the region went over to the defensive.

Warfare in the peninsula consisted primarily of raids and sieges and most fighting took place in the summer and fall. Both sides, however, generally lacked the resources to quickly consolidate permanent gains. While a city might be the goal of a drawnout campaign, it typically would be subjected to siege only after years of raiding the surrounding territory.

The mobile character of such fighting put a premium on light troops. light cavalry and infantry both played significant roles in Spanish warfare, roles that retained their importance for centuries to come.

In fact, heavy cavalry, as exemplified by the contemporaneous mailed knights of Normandy, saw little Use. On the other hand, missile infantry, such as stingers, were common. These would include ordinary slings, as well as the staff sling, although staff slings were employed more often in siege work.

The crossbow, or arbalest, was widely adopted in the 11th century. The northern states took to this weapon first, but it caught on in Andalusia too, and became a fundamental infantry weapon throughout the peninsula. This caused the use of bows to fall off, but they were never entirely displaced.

Because feudalism didn't take hold here as it did elsewhere in Europe, early medieval Spain witnessed the emergence of large numbers of proficient non-noble cavalry. Men wealthy enough to afford it were expected to go to battle mounted, regardless of their social status. Urban militias developed as well, supplying both mounted and foot contingents.

Finally, the hiring of mercenaries was a widespread practice. At the time, Spain was a financial center of the western world. The wealth of the taifas and the transfer of wealth as tribute payments to the encroaching Christian states helped make the employment of mercenaries both practical and commonplace. Christian troops were especially sought after by the Moorish states. The Cid himself was the most famous Spanish mercenary of the times.

The Christian states also were characterized by some military distinctions among themselves. Catalan forces were more influenced by conditions in nearby France with it's emphasis on heavier troop types. Aragon similarly absorbed French influence and is known to have made use of French reinforcements. Tiny Navarre, because of it's mountainous nature, placed even more emphasis on infantry than other states.

In Castile, the urban militias -- horse and foot -- played a major role. Leon had seen the first appearance of such militias but their development lagged behind that in Castile. Finally, while the county of Portugal would use up much of it's energy trying to stay independent from Castile and Leon. Portugal also would remain something of a military backwater. Interestingly, longbows would continue to be used here, even though the crossbow was gaining wide acceptance elsewhere.

The arrival of the Almoravids added more military diversity to the peninsula. Almoravid armies relied on Berber and black African light infantry, as well as North African cavalry mounted on horses, camels and even mules. Yusuf Ibn Tashfin reorganized the tribal-based formations of the Almoravids, forming an elite personal mounted bodyguard made up of 500 non-Berbers which included Turks and European mercenaries. These were supplemented by another 2,000 African cavalry.

But the Almoravids had originated as an infantry force and the bulk of their numbers remained foot. Their battlefield tactics likewise developed from infantry roles and continued to be defensively oriented. It was said that the Almoravids neither pursued nor retreated from a battlefield.

ORGANIZATION AND TACTICS

It is difficult to speak with much precision of the organization of the military forces in the Iberian peninsula in the late 11th century.

Many units appear to have been organized on a decimal basis and Andulusian units seem to have retained at least some of the regimental organization that was followed under the Wmayyad caliphate. Heath writes of Andalusian units of 1,000, broken down into five 200-man companies.

Spanish militia units, as well as the Andalusian regiments, each carried their own standards.

The organization of the Almoravids was tribal, although they may have adopted some of the Andalusian methods of organization after entering Spain. The Almoravids built their armies around Berber infantry and fight cavalry, with an elite of camelmounted troops and selected guard units of both horse and fight foot, all backed up by numbers of auxiliaries. Specific mention is made of mercenary Turkish archer's in the Almoravid ranks at Zallaca.

Iberian tactics followed the standard practices adhered to elsewhere in Europe at the time. The decisive cavalry charge was the key to success in battle. Generally, one such charge was all that a unit was capable of, although on occasion, cavalry could be rallied to make another attack if the first push failed to strike home. The cavalry charge of the typical medieval battle has been likened to the shooting of a projectile. Once aimed and discharged, little else could be done to control it.

To compensate for the lack of control, medieval commanders would painstakingly set up an initial order of battle, arranging their units much like setting up the pieces on a chessboard. Inevitably, of course, the set-ups would dissolve into considerable confusion once the actual battle began.

Cavalry would generally be armed with spear or fight lance and sword, although other close-quarter weapons, such as axes and maces, were used too. The lance could be used in a variety of ways, but thrusting overarm was an especially common method employed in Spain. If the all-important cavalry charge failed to break the enemy, lances would be discarded and swords or other hand-to-hand weapons would be drawn to continue the melee.

The role of infantry was defensive for the most part, with units assigned to hold particular locations or to protect the cavalry from enemy attack. Effective combined efforts between cavalry and infantry were not at all unusual, however, and sometimes the two arms could even be mixed to achieve some tactical end.

Missile infantry would be posted in such a way to harass the enemy, especially advancing cavalry. javelin-armed skirmish infantry also would be used in an effort to disrupt oncoming cavalry.

The Andalusians are known to have disposed their forces to absorb a mounted attack in this way: kneeling infantry would present shields and spears in a forward rank. Behind them, archer's would shoot over the heads of those kneeling, who would throw their own javelins and then receive the charge. At this stage, the infantry would open their ranks and cavalry that had been posted to the rear would countercharge.

There is considerable resemblance in that description to the standard tactics of the Almoravids.

These African warriors traditionally fought defensively, in a phalanx infantry formation from which the comparatively smaller numbers of cavalry would issue to strike their own decisive blow.

Almoravid cavalry units are said to have had their own flags. Berber cavalry units are said to have had their own flags. Berber cavalry were rated of much higher quality than their Andalusian counterparts.

Finally, the famous Almoravid drums were put to tactical use, their unfamiliar beating terrorizing Christian troops, while the Almoravids themselves seem to have maneuvered to the drums' roll.

More El Cid

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