Of all the leaders of the Apache, perhaps of all the great Indian warriors, the name of Geronimo stands supreme. In his own lifetime, Geronimo was the object of intense hatred among the justifiably terrified settlers of the SouthWest. A contemporary reporter described the feelings a sight of him instilled: "Crueller features were never cut. The nose is broad and heavy, the forehead low and wrinkled, the chin full and strong, the eyes like two bits of obsidian with a light behind them. The mouth is the most noticeable feature- a sharp, straight, thin-lipped gash of generous length and without one softening curve."

Geronimo was born about 1823, near the headwaters of the Gila River in modern New Mexico. He was never a chief, but had a considerable reputation for his psycic powers. He was also a persuasive speaker, an opportunist, a crack shot, and with a considerable reputation for cruelty. He was said, for example, to have killed settlers' babies by throwing them on to the point of a knife. Just what basis this reputation had is difficult to estimate, Apache methods of warfare (like those of some of their opponents) were cruel, and it may be that Geronimo was no worse than most. He was born with the name Goyahkla, meaning "one who yawns" and gained the famous nickname by which he is usually known after an attack on some rifle-firing Mexican soldiers, during which he ran at them with a knife. The Mexicans called on St Jerome "Geronimo", and so Goyahkla gained his name.

A profound event in Geronimo's life occurred in 1853, when Mexican troops killed his wife and children. Soon afterwards the grief-stricken Apache had a vision in which he was told that no enemy bullet could harm him, a belief which encouraged him in almost suicidal acts of bravery.

Geronimo first became involved in hostilities with the Americans in the 1860's, but it was not until after the Civil War that conflict became continuous.

In 1871, in the aftermath of disquiet resulting from the killing of some peaceful Apache in the Camp Grant Massacre, President Grant introduced a "peace policy", appointing General George Crook to the command of the Department of Arizona, with instructions to re-organise it, and forcibly settle the Apache on reservations. Unrest continued, and in 1872 Crook embarked upon his Tonto Basin campaign. For the first time, he introduced the use of mobile columns, depending upon mule trains for supplies, and also made widespread use of "friendly" Apache scouts. The Tonto Apache were defeated in December at the battles of Salt River Cave and Turret Mountain, and partly because of this, and also because they were impressed by Crook"s integrity, large numbers of the Tonto submitted.

By 1875, considerable progress had been made in resettling the Apache on reservations, but in that year the Government introduced its "concentration policy", under which the Apache were forcibly removed from their old lands, and resettled, often next to traditional enemies. The result was an upsurge in resistance, particular problems being encountered with the Chiriuchna, many of whom broke out of the San Carlos reservation and conducted a prolonged guerilla war. Geronimo was captured, as a result of treachery, in 187-4, and for some time lived at least partially on the reservation. Some resistance continued; Victorio was killed in October 1880 during a battle with Mexican soldiers, but the elderly shaman Nana, with 40 men, won eight battles and evaded 1,400 troops during a twomonth campaign during the summer of 1881, and then escaped over the border into Mexico.

But by this stage, virtually all of the Indians of the United States, with the exception of four bands of Chiriuchua, had submitted; most of the Apache leaders were dead. and it seemed that the centuries old-wars with the Indians were almost at an end. Against all expectations, they were to be prolonged for six more years. almost entirely because of one man; Geronimo.

Major Breakout

In April 1882, Geronimo led a major breakont from the reservation. He was pursued by troops under Colonel George Forsyth, but, reassured by Geronimo's assurances that he could frustrate the soldiers by delaying the dawn, the Apache instead ran into an ambush of Mexican soldiers, and suffered severe losses. Geronimo and the survivors escaped across the border into the fastnessess of the Sierra Madre. Even now, the Apache seem to have had few illusions concerning the eventual outcome; one of their medicine men saw a vision of thousands of soldiers in blue, and warned: "Eventually they will exterminate us."

Undeterred, Geronimo's warriors launched widespread into Arizona, New Mexico and Mexico, but in September 1882, George Crook was reappointed to his old command. He organised more mule trains, and five companies of Apache scouts to pursue the hostiles. A "hot pursuit" agreement was made with Mexico, and in May 1883, Crook launched a bold operation designed to trap the Apache in their Sierra Madre lair. With the aid of his scouts, Crook's 325-man expedition surrounded the. main Apache camp, but most of the warriors were away raiding, and only nine of the enemy were killed, and five children captured. Geronimo, in Mexico, supposedly had a vision of the event, crying out "men, our people whom we left at our base camp are now in the hands of U.S. troops!". The Apache hurried back, and surrounded Crook in their camp. putting him briefly in an uncomfortable situation. However an attempt by Geronimo to trap his Apache scouts failed, and shortly afterwards the bulk of the Chiruiuchna submitted and went back to the reservation.

Geronimo himself stayed out for several months longer. before submitting in March 1884. bringing with him, to the embarassment of the U.S. authorities, a large herd of stolen Mexican cattle!

Most of the Apache had now lost the will for further resistance, and even the elderly (by Apache terms) Geronimo seems to have made a genuine effort to settle down to farming on the White Mountain reservation. But causes of friction soon arose, centred around official attempts to forbid the timehonoured Apache practices of wifebeating and getting drunk on a concoction known as "Tiswin."

Another Breakout

In May 1885, some chiefs openly defied the Government commander, Lieutenant Britton Davis, and informants told Geronimo that Davis was planning to arrest and hang him. So on May 17th Geronimo and 145 Chiriuchua men, women and children, including Nana and the sons of Cochise and Mangas Colorado, broke out of the reservation, and headed back for the Sierra Madre. On their way they struck savagely at the settlers, killing some 95 of them, whilst it was claimed that during the next five months some 5600 Mexicans fell victim to Geronimo's raids.

Crook put guards on the water holes, and sent his scouts and regulars in pursuit of Geronimo's followers, who broke up into several smaller bands. But, despite some daring exploits, the will to resist had gone out of most of the Apache.

After a few weeks, Nana, now aged over 80, surrendered with some of the Apache women, and March 1886, Geronimo himself met Crook just over the Mexican border in order to discuss terms. He told the American: "I think I am a good man, but in the papers all over the world they say I am a bad man; but it is a bad thing to say so about me. I never do wrong without a cause." Crook, unimpressed, informed the Apache leader that unless he surrendered, he would hunt him down if it took 50 years. Next day Geronimo shook hands and told his adversary "Do with me what you please. I surrender. Once I moved about like the wind. Now I surrender to you and that is all."

At right: General Nelson A. Miles But all was not quite over. Informed by an illegal whiskey trader that Crook intended to hang him as soon as they were back over the border, Geronimo and 39 followers broke out one last time. Angered by accusations that his Apache scouts had connived at Geronimo's escape, Crook resigned his command, and was replaced by General Nelson A. Miles, who moved to round up Geronimo, using no less than 5,000 soldiers, a quarter of the entire U.S. Army, while some 3,000 Mexican troops operated across the border.

By the end of August even the last few Chiriuchua had had enough; desperate to see their families, they sent two women to ask for negotiations. A body blow to any further thoughts of resistance was struck when the Apaches learnt that their people had alrwady been sent by train to Florida. On September 4th 1886, Geronimo, and his remaining 16 men, 12 women and 6 children surrendered to General Miles at Skeleton Canyon, just west of the Arizona -New Mexico border. Geronimo told the general : "This is the fourth time I have surrendered." "And I think it is the last time." replied Miles.

He was right; Geronimo and his followers, and in a final piece of doubledealing, Crook's loyal Apache scouts, were transported to Fort Pickens, Florida. They were to remain virtual prisoners, there and later at Fort Sill, Oklahoma, for almost thirty years. Geronimo himself, still longing to return to his homelands, which the Government would never allow, died in 1909, after a fall from his horse, bitterly regreting his surrender and repeating on his deathbed the names of those who had stayed loyal until the end. It was not until 1913 that some of the 265 remaining Chiriculma were allowed a place on the Mescah--co reservation in New Mexico. Today, as a separate entity, they are virtually extinct. The medicine man's vision had come true.

Further Reading

There is a vast literature, varying enormously in value, dealing with the Pony Wars. The titles listed below will provide a useful starting point for those wishing to explore further.

Osprey "Men at Arms" series "American Indian Wars, 1860-1890", No. 63 "American Plains Indians", No. 163 "The Apaches", No. 186 "U.S. Cavalry, 1850-90", No. 168.

David Roberts, "Geronimo" 1993. Wayne Michael Sarf, "The Little Big Horn Campaign", 1993. Enjoyable as literature, but highly confusing as history, is Evan S. Connell's famous "Son of the Morning Star" 1984,

Robert M. Utley, "Bluecoat and Redskin; the U.S. Army and the Indian, 1866-1890", 1973, still provides the best general survey of the Pony Wars.

Finally, a pleasure in its own right, is George MacDonald Fraser, "Flashman and the Redskins, 1982, in which the irrepressable "Flashy" not only survives Little Big Horn, but possibly kills Custer into the bargain!

More Tigers of the Human Race

The Roots of Conflict
Geronimo and Crook: The Last Fight of the Apache

This article appears in MagWeb (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web.
Other military history articles and gaming articles are available at http://www.magweb.com