Introduction:

The period after the battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815) to the opening of the battle of Alma (Sept 20, 1854) witnesses the resurrection of the French Army. After the defeat of Napoleon, the French Army struggled to regain its reputation that was scattered to tatters at Waterloo. By the time of the opening battle of the Crimean War, it had once again became the world's model army. This article will present a summary of the French Army's history, organization, and doctrine. Followed by a more detail description of the foreign conflicts that involved French forces. In future articles, the particulars of infantry, cavalry and artillery organization and doctrine will also be presented.

History:

During this period, the French Army was employed in a variety of tasks, usually with the approval of the Great Powers.

It intervened in three foreign civil wars as an instrument of French Foriegn policy. 1823, the French invaded Spain to restore the deposed King Ferdinard. In 1831, a French Corps invaded Belgium to assist the independently minded Belgians against the Dutch. In 1849, another French Corps was sent to Rome to support the Pope against Italian nationalists.

It was used at critical moments in civil wars that seemed endemic to France. In 1830, it supported the rebels against the Bourbon monarch Charles X and assisted the forming of the July Monarchy of Louis-Philippe. With further research, it appears the army under Marshal Marmont(the Napoleanic marshal who surrended Paris to the allies in 1814) initially resisted the Paris riots. But three days into the revolt, two line regiments joined the rioters. In 1831, it again supported the Orleanist Party by crushing the uprising in Lyons. In 1834, it was again used against rebels in Lyons and Paris. The Army stood idly by, in 1848, as Louis-Philippe was driven from power, and in the same year, put down an insurrection against the newly elected provisional government. In 1851, when Louis Napoleon succesfully staged a coup d'etat against his own Presidency and established the Second Empire, he did so with the backing of the Army.

However, the most consuming efforts of the French Army were directed against the tribes of North Africa. From 1830 to 1847, up to 160,000 French soldiers were employed in the campaigns conducted in Algeria. These engagements would do much to influence the development of the army's officer corps and tactics.

Organisation:

The French Army went through three basic reorganizations during this period.

The first occurred immediately after the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo. The French Army at that time consisted of a number of regional armies which were divided into Corps. The Corps broke into Divisions. Divisions into Regiments.

The Armies were:

Armee des Pyrennes Occidenales(6000) & Armee des Pyrennes Orientales(7600) guarded the Pyrennes.
Armee du Vars(5500) & Armee des Alpes(23500) held the Italian frontier.
Armee du Jura(8400) & Armee du Rhin(23000) were on the Rhine River.
Armee de L'Ouest(10000) watched the French Atlantic coast.
Armee du Nord(128000 before Waterloo/Ligny/QuatreBras - afterwards 62000) Paris Garrison(20000)
Misc Garrisons(80000)

1 Infantry Corps had 3 - 4 Inf Divisions(each had 4 regiments for a total of 4000 men) which had 5 battalions of [line battalions each had 4 fusilier, 1grenadier, 1 voltigers coys.] [light batt -4 chasseur, 1 carbinieer, 1 voltigers co.]) 1 Cav Division( 2 brigades(total of 1600men) which had 2 light cavalry (lancer, chasseur, hussar) regiments [regt - 8 to 10 companies (at a total of 100 men)]) and a total of 40 guns(from 5 foot batteries)

1 Cavalry Corps had two Cav Division (each of two brigades(at a total of 1600men) which had two cavalry (lancer, chasseur, hussar, dragoon, cuirassier, carabinier) regiments consisting of eight to ten companies (at a total 100 men) and included 12 guns(2 horse batteries)

In August 1815, the restored Bourbon Monarch, King Louis XVIII dismantled the regimental system developed during the Napoleonic wars. He hoped to provide himself with a loyal royal army by breaking up the old imperial regiments.

The new organization was based on department legions. These were multi-combat arm units raised in a particular department (province) of France. A Department Legion would field 97 officers, 1604 non-com & other ranks. Its organization was:

2 line battalions (each of 6 line(3 off, 14 non-com, 52 men + 2 drummers each), 1 grenadier(3 off, 14 non-com, 52 men + 2 drummers each), 1 chasseur companies(3 off,14 non-com, 28 men + 2 drummers each)) 1 chasseur battalion (8 chasseur companies 3 officers, 14 non-com, 28 men + 2 drummers each) 2 depot companies(half strength)

1 horse guides company(2 officiers, 8 non-com, 36 men + 2 trumpeters) 1 artillery company (2 off, 10 non-com, 34 artillerist + 2 drummers ) probably 8 guns staff (1 colonel, 1lt.colonel,4 majors, 4 battalion adjutants, 2 captains, paymaster, color-bearer, surgeon-major, 3 assistant surgeons)

It would soon become apparent that the department legion system was too inflexible and rather clumsy. A second reorganization therefore occurred in 1820, when the 2 to 3 battalion regiment replaced the departmental legion as the basic combat formation of the French Army. Additionally, the new organization reintroducted the French practice of having separate Line and Light infantry regiments.

The third reorganization happened at the end of the period. It is perhaps the most important, as it resulted in the integration of the Light regiments into the Line. This was in keeping with a newly emerging doctrine that all infantry be able to engage in open order combat.

Doctrine:

The development of French tactics during this period reflects well on the flexibility of the 1791 regulation. Although the army issued a new manual in 1831, 1845 (for chasseur battalions) and 1852 (adoption of 1845 for line troops), these were developments from the 1791 instructions. The primary direction of this development was in the use of firepower and mobility. The French army used different methods to achieve these goals; against the North Africa tribes, the French used mounted infantry, two rank firing lines and open order. Against the more firepower oriented European enemies. the French relied on massed artillery and skirmisher-covered columns.

Combat History:

The first major action involving the French Army after the Battle of Waterloo was the Intervention in Spain.

In January 1820, part of the Spanish military mutinied against the rule of King Ferdinand VII. The rebellion started when troops, ordered to Latin America to put down the independence movements in the Spanish colonies, refused to go. The rebellion under Colonel Rafael del Riego y Nunez spread from Cadiz until the King was captured.

In October 1822, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, & Russia as the members of the Quadruple Alliance convened as the Congress of Verona and authorized France to restore order and the Spanish monarchy, by force if necessary. The French Army invaded Spain.

On April 17, 1823, the Duke Louis d'Augouline crossed the Bidassoa River and entered Spain through the western portion of the Pyrennes Mountains. The French army seized Madrid and marched on Cadiz, the seat of the rebellion.

The campaign's pivotal battle occurred on August 31, 1823. In what was known as the Battle of Trocadero, the French stormed the two forts defending the approaches to Cadiz.

The rebel army disintegrated and the rebellion was ended. Ferdinard was restored and he continued his repressive and absolute rule until 1833 when he died, setting the stage for the Carlist Wars.

The second foreign war for the post-Napoleonic French army was the intervention in Belgium. On August 25, 1830, the southern half of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands broke out in rebellion. By December 20, 1830, the Great Powers, led by Great Britain, had declared Belgium independent of the Netherlands.

The Amsterdam Government did not recognize this independence and invaded Belgium on August 2, 1831. The invading 50,000 Dutch troops defeated the extemporized Belgian Army. This provoked French invention.

Marshall Etienne Gerard with 60,000 French soldiers entered Belgium. The Dutch army withdrew into the Antwerp Citadel. The French army followed and placed the Citadel under siege.

The siege was coupled with an Anglo-French naval blockade from November to December 1832. In December, the Dutch surrendered. By May 31, 1832, there was an armistice. On April 19, 1839, the Dutch finally recognized Belgian independence.

The third foreign adventure for the French military was the Algerian campaign, which was to rage from 1830 to 1847. It started as an attempt to permanently end the reign of the Barbary Coast pirates.

The initial French invasion force consisted of 37000 men and 83 guns under Marshal Louis A. V. de Bourmont. From June to July 1830, the French were able to seize control of all the major ports and towns. The capture of Algiers signaling the end of the initial campaign.

Having taken all the urban sectors of Algeria, the French were still unable to control the rural area. In 1832, this point was driven home by the rebellion of Abd el Kader. This war was a war of skirmishes. The French were unable to combat the fast moving Algerian raiding forces with their infantry forces, and the war dragged on until 1837. The Treaty of Tafna left the French with possession of only the coastal cities.

However, the Treaty was signed while the French were still attempting to take the inland city of Constantine. So, when in October 1837, a French army under Marshal C.M.D. Damremont assaulted and took the city. Abd el Kader considered it a violation of the Tafna treaty rand and recommenced his guerrilla war against the French with 8000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, plus 50000 irregular cavalry.

After three years of indecisive fighting, the French sent Marshal Thomas R. Bugeaud to Algeria. With him came 59000 troops. This number was to grow to 160,000 by the end of hostilities.

Bugeaud reorganizied French colonial policy in Algeria. He introduced reforms to the army's practices. These reforms stressed the mobile warfare and all-around defense. He emphasized the use of skirmishers, firepower and cavalry. He established protected bases within the rural areas of Algeria from where columns could operate. His tactics involved the use of the two-staged column. The main body protecting the supply train and providing a base for the advance/striking column to pursuit and engage the enemy.

On May 10, 1843, Bugeaud reforms paid off. A French flying column of 2000 men under the Duke Henri d'Armale attacked and dispersed 40000 of Abd el Kader's men.

Bugeaud successes forced Abd el Kader to seek shelter in Morocco. The French crossed the border in pursuit. At the Battle of Isly, August 14, 1844, Abd el Kader's 45000 troops were defeated by Bugeaud with 7500 infantry and cavalry. The Battle of Isly broke el Kader's power. On December 23, 1847, Abd el Kader surrendered to the French.

The fourth French foreign expedition was intervention in Italy. This episode has been covered in an excellent article by our illustrious editor, K.M. Frye, (thank's Bob, but I still can't pay you for your article. Ed.) but a brief recap is perhaps in order: On February 9, 1849, Italian nationalists ousted the Pope from Rome. In response, on April 24, 1849, 8000 French under General Oudinot landed in the Papal States. Their object was to return the Pope to power. This force moved on Rome. The defending Italian nationalists numbered 20000. The first French assault on April 29 failed. But Oudinot continued the siege until the city surrendered on June 29, 1849.

Hence, by 1854, the French army had restored its reputation. It's experience in Spain, Beligium & Italy had shown its ability in conventional European warfare. It's African campaign's had exposed its to the effects improved firearms and mobility on warfare.

In the next installment, the details of the armies changes will be explored.

-Finis-