Napoleon Man of Peace
Introduction and Coalition Compositions
by Ben Weider, Canada
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Like all soldiers who have seen battle, Napoleon had a horror of war. He was sentimental and good. He loved the people and his soldiers like they were his children.
Never in his entire life did he start a single war. All the wars he conducted were forced on him by the reigning monarchs of Europe, who wanted to keep their ancestral privileges and feared the spread of republican ideas.
Consider what William Pitt said in the British Parliament on December 29th, 1796: "England will never consent to the reunion of Belgium and France. We will continue to wage war as long as France does not return to its 1789 borders." He kept his word, as did those who succeeded him, except during the brief interval of peace under the Treaty of Amiens from the 25th of March 1802 to the 16th of May 1803.
So, then! Napoleon was in no way responsible for the annexation of Belgium. It was the Convention of August 1795 that made it a French province. Besides, the annexation of Belgium was not the real issue behind what was at stake. More than anything, the British oligarchy wanted to crush this French Republic that intended to export the ideas of Liberty to the rest of Europe. Essentially, it wanted the King of France to be returned to the throne.
As a result, seven coalitions, spurred by Britain and funded by its gold, were mounted against France during the period from 1793 to 1815.
Here is the list, with a brief account of how each unfolded:
1st Coalition: 1793 - 1797
England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Papal States and Italy
In 1792, the armies of the Republic under the command of Dumouriez and Kellerman had repulsed the attacks of the Prussians at Valmy and the Austrians at Jemmapes.
In February 1793, English Prime Minister William Pitt, who had assumed that the armies assembled and seasoned by Prussia and Austria would make short work of the sans-culottes, decides to mount a major coalition of all the monarchies of Europe to put an end to the Republic.
In the face of this threat, the military strategist Lazare Carnot, later Napoleon's Minister of War, orders a mass draft and sets out to organise and train the troops by developing "the amalgam," whereby young recruits full of passion and enthusiasm at the prospect of fighting for liberty are posted around a core of veterans.
Soon the armies of the Republic are victorious on all fronts. The Italian Princes are the first to leave the coalition, followed by Prussia, Russia, Holland, Spain and Portugal.
In the spring of 1796, only England, Austria and the Kingdom of PiedmontSardinia remain in a state of war.
It was at this point that Bonaparte was named Commander-in-Chief of the Italian army and began the dazzling campaign that astounded Europe.
1796:
1797:
14 Jan. Victory of Rivoli 2nd Coalition: 1798 - 1802
England, Austria, Russia, Kingdom of Naples
William Pitt, knowing Bonaparte to be in Egypt, believes this time it will be possible to defeat the armies of the Republic and restore the Bourbons to the throne of France. With a good deal of gold, he succeeds in persuading Austria, Russia and the Kingdom of Naples to join England to relaunch the war.
The hostilities get underway in the fall of 1798 in the Kingdom of Naples, where General Championnet quickly turns the situation to his advantage. King Ferdinand IV is forced to flee to Sicily.
In March 1799, the Directory decides to launch three offensives, one in Bavaria, one in Switzerland, and the third in Italy. It believes its forces are superior.
But Bonaparte was not there.
Jourdan engages Archduke Charles at Stokach on the 25th of March and is defeated.
In Switzerland, Masséna can do no better than hold his positions.
However, the grimmest setbacks occur in Italy. Suvorov forces Shérer and Moreau to retreat and abandon Milan.
Joubert, who had replaced Moreau, attacks Suvorov at Novi on the 15th of August 1799. He is killed in action, and it is a disaster. Italy is lost for France.
Fortunately, Masséna buys time. At the Battle of Zurich (from the 23rd to the 27 th of September) he drives the Russians back across the Rhine.
And then Bonaparte returns from Egypt.
On the 14th of June 1800, he defeats the Austrians at Marengo and on the 31 of December, Moreau defeats another Austrian army at Hohenlinden. Treaties favourable to France put an end to the war:
3rd Coalition: 1803 1805
England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Sweden
In 1803, William Pitt, now back in power in England, violates the Treaty of Amiens and declares war on France, while working to put together a new coalition. He is also party to the Count d'Artois' attempts on Bonaparte's life (Cadoudal Pichegru).
Bonaparte assembles an army at Boulogne intending to invade England and impose peace.
But the Austrians advance in Bavaria and Napoleon, who has been Emperor of France since the 18th of May 1804, decides to break camp and march to encounter them. He captures General Mack's army at Ulm on the 20th of October 1805.
Nelson destroys the French fleet at Trafalgar the following day on the 21st of October. Then comes the great victory of Austerlitz over the AustroRussians on the 2nd of December 1805, the anniversary of the coronation.
The Treaty of Presbourg on the 26th of December 1805 brings the war to a close.
4th Coalition: 1807
England, Prussia, Russia, Sweden
Prussia, which had not been able to act in 1805, drags England, Russia and Sweden into a new coalition against France.
On the 14th of October 1806, its army is simultaneously wiped out in two major battles: Jena, under the command of the Emperor in person, and Auerstaedt under the command of Marshal Davout.
The fleeing troops of both Prussian armies meet; the two routed armies collide and become entangled in indescribable mayhem under the dismayed eyes of King Frederick William and Queen Louise, who had come, as if to a parade, to attend the victory of their troops.
Napoleon enters Berlin in triumph.
However the Russians advance into Poland and the Swedes are in Pomerania. At the end of December 1806, Napoleon leaves Berlin and sets up in Warsaw.
After the indecisive Battle of Eylau (8th of February 1807), Napoleon crushes the Russians at Friedland on the 14th of June 1807.
The Treaty of Tilsit (7th to 9th of July 1807) ends the war.
5th Coalition: 1809
England, Austria
At the end of 1808, England again tries to align the European powers against France. Austria alone accepts, and only on the condition that England pay their campaign expenses.
The Austrians take the offensive on the 10th of April 1809. They will be defeated in several battles, the most important of which are Eckmühl (22nd of April), Essling (22nd of May) and finally Wagram on the 6th Of July.
The Treaty of Vienna of the 14th of October 1809 ends the war.
6th Coalition: 1813-1814
England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden
The monarchs, bolstered by the weakening of the Grande Armée following the Russian campaign, reassemble yet again to attack France.
The operations begin on the 15th of April 1813.
Initially victorious at Lutzen (2nd of May), Bautzen (20th of May) and Dresden (26th 27th of August), Napoleon concedes to the strength of numbers at Leipzig (16th to 19th of October) and must retreat across the Rhine.
Now all of Europe, except Denmark, marches against France. This becomes the campaign of 1814 during which Napoleon will win his final victories:
But the Allies are too numerous and Paris fails on the 31st of March. Napoleon abdicates and retires to the island of Elba, which the Allies have assigned him for life.
7th Coalition: 1815
England, Austria, Prussia, Russia
When Napoleon, having left the Island of Elba, arrives in Paris on the 20th of March 1815, the Allies are meeting at the Congress of Vienna.
Despite the assurances of peace presented by the Emperor, they immediately decide to start a campaign. The force that prepares to march on France is 700,000 men strong.
In an attempt to prevent this movement, Napoleon heads to Belgium with an army trained in six weeks. He defeats Blücher's Prussians at Ligny on the 16th of June but is defeated at Waterloo on the 18th due to Marshal Grouchy's errors and torrential rains that make the terrain very difficult for troop displacements against the English troops entrenched in a defensive position.
Napoleon is deported to St. Helena, where he dies on the 5th of May 1821, the victim of poisoning ordered by the Cabinet in London and the Court of France.
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