The Anglo-Saxons were a hardy warrior society in the 11th century, a blend of numerous migratory tribes of Ancient Britons. Romans, Angles, Saxons and Scandinavians. They could expect a life span of about 48 years on the average, according to recent studies. This was considerably longer than the Greeks or Romans of classical times (living in a 'superior' civilization) who could expect to live 32 to 35 years. The mortality rate, based on a study of Carolingians by Suzanne Wemple, gives us some idea of what the Saxons must have experienced. The highest rates for males was 11% mortality at ages 1 to 4, 13% from 40 to 44 and again from 50 to 54. Not surprisingly, the highest female mortality rates were in the child-bearing years.

The population of England may have been anywhere from 1 1/4 to 2 1/2 million inhabitants in the 11th century, but the usual figure given is 1 3/4 million, a compromise. Two-thirds of these people were free peasant farmers (Domesday gives the figure of 108,407 villains, 82,119 borders, 6,803 cottars and 25,156 serfs . At the top of the social ladder were several thousand nobles who owned large land holdings. The most powerful and successful of these were the Saxon earls, who would be the equivalent of a modern day governor.

By the 1060's there was an immense amount of regional power in the hands of these earls who wielded it to hold together the royal power. At the lowest level of this structure were a class of slaves, made up of captives, criminals and the very poor, possessing limited rights and having the possibility of eventual freedom. Women could hold land, defend claims in courts of law, donate to the church, free slaves and, if widowed, women would receive one-half their husbands' property.

The units of land were organized around a village, which in turn made up a shire. Each village also belonged to a 'hundred'. which was a system of courts set up to represent the government and individuals both. Each hundred held court every four weeks, ensuring a rapid system of justice. Each village was divided into hides (taxable units of around 20 acres each). On these hides were based the land taxes, or geld. This tax, established in 991, was used to support the king's army of mercenary warriors (huscarls). The land tax was 25 shillings per hide. This hide system was also used to determine whether a landowner was entitled to thegnhood or not.

A thegn was loosely classed as anyone owning over five hides of land, or 100 acres. Thegns could be English, Danish or even Normans.' As well as providing this 'upward mobility' incentive for peasants to strive to become thegns (Promotion Law) which was a title of power and prestige, this also provided the king with a trained class of warriors. The thegns were obliged to serve in the Saxon army as what was called the select fyrd. They were obligated to two months of active duty during wartime or emergency per year. The rest of the Saxon peasantry were also required to serve in the great fyrd, thus becoming the embodiment of the Teutonic 'nation in arms'. but only within their local territorial areas.

Life was not the easiest for commoner or noble, due to a general lack of hygiene, but except for occasional Viking raids and problems near the border areas of Scotland and Wales England was fairly peaceful. Disease was, as throughout most of history, deadly if contracted. Malaria was common in the marshy areas of East Anglia and Northumbria. It had been established in the 900's and peaked in the 1150's. Arthritis appears to have been another common ailment. Nature itself, however, tormented the populace. The Anglo-Saxon, Chronicles describe in great detail the ravages of famine, drought and pestilence.

The Normans had their own ideas about who their enemies were and, through time, attempted to belittle the English. William of Malmesbury wrote about the Saxons that "...the desire after literature and religion had decayed for many years before the arrival of the Normans. The clergy, content with a very slight degree of learning, could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments; and a person who understood grammar was an object of wonder and astonishment. The monks mocked the rule of their order by fine vestments and the use of every kind of food. The nobility, given to luxury and wantoness, went not to church ... but merely ... heard masses from a hurrying priest in their chambers, amid the blandishments of their wives."

In reality, the Normans attempted to destroy the Saxons both culturally and socially. The conquerors tore down virtually every Saxon cathedral and abbey and rebuilt new ones in the Norman style. The Saxons were not to be allowed to have a past to look back on.

Of what can we be sure? We know that pre-conquest England as well as Western Europe in general was prospering. As an example, the expanding successful Flemish cloth industry was using large amounts of wool imported from England. England had a minted currency in silver pennies which were changed at six year intervals, the king taking a profit with each re-minting. There were forty to eighty mints with the names of the towns and/or minters stamped on the ten to fifty million coins issued per minting. It has been said that England possessed the most complex monetary system outside of the Byzantine Empire in Europe.

We also know that the English government was the most efficient in Western Europe with trained local and central officials, a chancery (writing office) producing writs to instruct provincial officials, and a royal receiver of taxes (exchequer). The village priests were mainly literate clerks and the king's writing office maintained archives (the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles). The treasury was kept at Winchester, and the king's court was fed by a foerm or food rent.

The Saxon nobility lived in large barn-halls with their families and servants, as did the Scandinavians. The justice system had a payment called wergeld which a killer was obliged to pay to the family of the slain. The average peasant lived in a wood cottage, had about thirty acres of land, shared a common plow with his neighbors and was enrolled in the great fyrd. The English goods were iron, lead and salt. York had a population of 8-10,000 in the 11th century and on the whole the Danes settled the north and east, the English in the south and west.

Saxon culture was not a barbaric anachronism as the Norman chroniclers would have us believe. The English had a developed vernacular literature, both prose and poetry. The study of manuscripts show that the English had absorbed the European reforms on marriage, law, baptisms, Social matters and advanced thought. In these matters, the Anglo-Saxons were in fact more civilized than their Norman adversaries.

The state was in theory a united kingdom under a national ruler but with strong regional and ethnic differences between northern and southern earldoms. There was one universal language in use, although Old Norse was still spoken and understood in England as late, as 1066. The institutions and laws established by Cnut in the early part of the 11th century gave England a period of peace and prosperity as well as the strength to remain free.

During Harold Godwinson's short reign of less than a year the coinage he had minted bore the word PAX. He was the only English ruler who had spelled the word correctly on coinage, though others had used it as well. He was not to be allowed any length of time to enjoy that wish for peace.

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