Rome now had an empire. Much of the Western Mediterranean had now come under Roman control, though ostensibly the empire was made up of lands that had been taken by conquest. What this meant to Rome was that the all-important Roman army would continue to be instrumental and influential in respect to Roman foreign and domestic policy decisions. Carthage remained as a sovereign state, but was a mere shell of what it had been previously. Indeed, the only power left in the area to rival Rome was Greece. A series of wars had already begun, during the Second Punic War, between Greece and Rome and these wars would continue for another half century.

Relations Between Rome and Carthage After the 2nd Punic War

A peace between Rome and Carthage held firm for fifty years after the Carthaginian disaster at Zama. The Roman Senate was busy with Greece, trying to get Roman citizens, tired of continuous warfare, to fight yet another protracted and bloody war. This resulted in the Roman legions taking the war into Greece and Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the Macedonian ruler, Philip V at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 B.C. Rome's problems did not end there, however.

Hannibal had travelled to Syria after his exile and became a revered counselor to the Seleucid king, Antiochus III. Hannibal had lost none of his hatred for Rome, and soon eagerly urged Antiochus to 'liberate; Greece from the Roman oppressors. This was not a hard sell, as a number of Greeks asked for Syrian help in ridding their homeland of the Romans.

Thus it came about that once again, Hannibal marched against the legions of Rome. He was no more successful than he was the last time. In 192, the Syrian army was on Greek soil. The Romans sent their hero, Scipio Africanus and his less than competent brother, Lucius Scipio to deal with the new threat. They did. First the Syrian fleet was attacked and destroyed. Next, the Romans forced the Syrians to return to Asia and then soundly defeated them at the Battle of Magnesia in 189.

Hannibal fled once again, this time to Bithynia, where he found no peace as Romans agents tracked him down and demanded that the Bithynian ruler hand him over to them. Hannibal, now 64 years old and as ascerbic as ever, instead committed suicide rather than have the hated enemy parade him like an animal through the streets of Rome.

Scipio too had exiled himself. He found Rome ungrateful and forgetful of his deeds. He still found himself compared as less of a leader than his old enemy and died a year or so before Hannibal's. Both major characters of the 2nd Punic War would not be witness to the third.

Carthage, humbled and now a minor power in the area, began to rebuild their economic base. This was a resounding success, as the Carthaginian war reparations, an indemnity of 200 talents a year, for another 40 years, could have been paid off as early as 191, but Rome refused, wishing to keep Carthage in debt to them for as long as possible.

Not that relations were bad between the two powers. Once Hannibal had been exiled, Carthaginian leaders actually offered to help Rome with her war against the Greeks by providing supplies, though Rome insisted on paying for them so as to have no obligations of their own toward Carthage. Roman hatred would be long remembered as it was not until the 1960's that some areas of Italy recovered from the physical impact of the invasion and 14 years of depravation in the south.

The Numidians

Masinissa, the king of Numidia, had been placed upon the throne by Scipio Africanus. The situation in Numidia was fluid, with rebellious tribes and fractious factions. The country was far from united. Masinissa had spent most of his life in Carthaginian society, but as he was an ally of Rome, he sought to bring his nation together and allow it to prosper independent of now helpless Carthaginian dominion. Masinissa sought to rule as a Hellenic king, with Phoenician as the court language and with good relations with his trading partner and former employer, Carthage. Attempting to create a new power in North Africa, Masinissa could not help but run afoul of Cathage, still holding the futile belief that the once powerful city still held the reigns of power in the area. The Numidians continually pushed their old employer's patience by 'recovering' lands previously held by them, but now controlled by Carthage. The problem grew worse. Carthage could not declare war without the consent of Rome, a provision of the treaty of 201. The Numidians continually violated Carthaginian territory. Carthage asked Rome for help.

Roman landowners had taken advantage of the peace and Carthage's impotence, to invest in land along the North African coast. The trade goods derived were valuable, and certain senators of Rome had speculated along with the landowners. They did not necessarily wish to see Numidia become the new power in Africa, but continued hatred of Carthage usually found Rome siding with Mesinissa.

Mesinissa's incursions into Carthaginian territory were made while Rome was occupied with either Greece or Syria. By 161, the Numidians had moved into and taken control of Carthaginian lands, leaving the towns alone, however. When Carthage appealed to Rome for help, the Roman response was to give Masinissa not only the lands he had taken over, but the towns as well. This type of situation continued for another ten years as Carthage increasingly saw it's power being stripped by an upstart ex-mercenary, aided by an age-old enemy.

Cato and the Senate of Rome

Carthage continued to lodge complaints throughout the next ten years, finally resulting in a Roman visit to check on things in the first person. One prominent member of the group from Rome was the ex-consul M. Porcius Cato. While in Carthage, Cato could not believe the wealth and prosperity he witnessed. Upon his return to Rome, he gave a speech in the Senate. He also used a bit of a gambit, bringing with him a fig from the Carthaginian countryside. The fig was duly produced and speculation has it that Cato either wanted to show the Roman farmers that their farms were inferior to the Carthaginian ones, or to show everyone how close…and how dangerous Carthage still was to Rome.

Cato continued to rail against Carthage's prosperity, eventually intoning that Carthage had to be destroyed once and for all. He met with limited opposition to this theme, as many in Rome still feared Carthage from their past experiences. All the more reason to renew hostilities was the fact that much loot and booty would be there for the taking. The army would certainly have no objections. Besides, Carthage had never been completely conquered. The treaty of peace had ended that possibility.

The Start of the War

Carthaginian politics began to take a decidedly belligerent turn as the depravations of the former mercenary Numidians grew. The old Carthaginian ruling structure, the oligarchy, found itself out of power as a new, more aggressive party took over. It did not take long for things to change.

Masinnissa's forces besieged a Carthaginian city in 151 and the Carthaginians raised an ill-equipped and poorly trained army to engage the experienced Numidian warriors. The Punic army was destroyed and it did not take long for the Numidians to notify Rome of this violation of the old peace treaty between Rome and Carthage (Carthage had to get Rome's permission to take any military action). In the meantime, Carthage continued to re-arm.

In Rome, the Senate did not immediately take action. Several reasons are plausible. First of all, this time an army would be dispatched to deal with Carthage once and for all. It would be large and capable of completely destroying the Punic war machine, not settling for another treaty of peace. Secondly, why not let the Numidians fight it out with Carthage? This would have the two-fold result of bleeding both factions so Rome would have an easier time dealing with the Numidians when and if they decided to flex their muscles against Rome. So it was that Carthaginian envoys went to Rome to plead their case to deaf ears.

Despair gripped northern Africa as the Carthaginians scrambled to re-arm for a war they knew they could not win. There was so little confidence in the ability to win, that the city of Utica actually surrendered to Rome before war was even officially declared!

In 149, two events spurred both Carthage and Rome into action. The Numidians were caught and soundly beaten by Carthaginian forces. Carthage then sent a delegation to Rome to sue for peace. Rome had in the interim declared war. The Carthaginian ambassadors agreed to Roman demands to deliver 300 hostages in return for their own freedom and to keep Carthage as a viable trading port.

Rome then sent an army of 80,000 foot and 4,000 cavalry to North Africa. They landed and marched upon Carthage, demanding that the Punic rulers hand over 200,000 pieces of armor and 2,000 catapults. Next, the Romans demanded that the city of Carthage be abandoned by the populace who would then have to find a new home, at least ten miles from the sea. This was too much for the proud Carthaginians to bear. They would be turned out of their homes, destitute into hostile lands with their livelihood of trade denied them. The rulers, knowing full well the futility of their efforts, had no choice but to go to war.

The Three Year War

The Romans were surprised by the tenacity of the Carthaginians. Upon realizing they were doomed if they could not defeat the hated Romans, the Carthaginians freed and armed their slaves, 'found' and forged weapons, and fought with a ferocity the Romans did not expect. The egotistical Roman powers were not used to losing. They were not resolved to destroying the Punic armies as is apparent from the fact that Carthage managed to maintain a field army outside the city that caused the Romans many logistical problems with establishing, provisioning and housing their huge invasion force.

The Romans counted on major Carthaginian defections, such as had occurred with Utica, but this did not happen, and for a year, the war dragged on. The Romans managed to breach the walls of Carthage in 148, but the army could not force an entry into the city. The Romans also attacked the fortified towns, but failed to capture them all.

In 147, Scipio Aemilianus, a relative of Scipio Africanus, became consul. He was every bit as ambitious and ruthless as any Roman field commander and his presence in Africa immediately became felt as his troops were enthused to be led by the legendary Scipio's grandson. He managed to outmaneuver the Carthaginian field army and force it into Carthage, allowing the Romans freedom from fear of being cut off from supplies. He then undertook the task of capturing Carthage itself.

First, the Romans decided to block the harbor to keep Carthage from receiving any supplies or reinforcements. The Carthaginians countered this by building a new harbor and built a new fleet. Unfortunately for them, the Roman fleet destroyed the new ships. The war was quickly drawing to its inevitable conclusion.

The End of the War

It took three years for the Romans to defeat Carthage. Not until the spring of 146 would they succeed. The Romans attacked by way of the sea and took the city from the port side, undefended by the city walls. A week of savage street fighting followed, but in the end, the Romans captured the citadel of Byrsa and the remaining 50,000 Carthaginians surrendered. Amongst the survivors were a thousand Romans who had deserted and joined the Carthaginian cause. Rather than surrender to be tortured and killed by their fellow Romans, they chose to burn to death in the temple of Eshmoun.

The 50,000 survivors were sold as slaves. Carthage was looted and burned. The Romans then made it law that no one could live where Carthage had once stood. The wars were over.

Results of the War and Wargaming Suggestions

Rome annexed Carthage. They proceeded to loot and burn those towns that had remained loyal to Carthage and taxes were levied on both land and individuals. Those living in the towns that had supported Rome were exempt from these taxes.

As Scipio returned to Rome victorious, he was warded a triumph and, like his grandfather, became titled Africanus.

Rome created the province of Africa to add to Spain and Macedonia. As the empire continued to grow, so would the number of tributary provinces. The power of Rome was just beginning to grow.

The Ancient Warfare rules and army lists allow you to fight the futile last stand of the Carthaginians against the Romans. Perhaps a campaign game, with the Romans trying to trap the Carthaginian field army while besieging Carthage would be interesting. Another scenario would be to have a good Roman army with lousy commanders trying to hold off a smaller Carthaginian force with high quality generals. In any event, this concludes the series on the Punic Wars. I hope you have enjoyed the articles.

Related: 2nd Punic War

Part One: Second Punic War: Preliminaries
Part Two: Second Punic War: Spain to the Alps
Part Two: Second Punic War: First Battles in Italy
Part Three: Second Punic War: To Battle of Cannae 216BC
Part Three: Second Punic War: The Battle of Cannae 216BC
Part Four: Second Punic War: The Battle of Zama and the End of the War