Travelling South

Harold's men had been arriving all day in small groups on the 13th October 1066. These men had fought a battle on the 25th September, 260 miles to the north and were now expected to fight another only a few days later. Despite the hardship of it all, the troops morale must have been quite high. Having defeated Hardrada would have boosted their confidence, But not their numbers. Edwin and Morcar declined to help on this occasion, preferring to mind their business in the north. This lack of support severely reduced the numbers Harold would be able to use in the battle. How many veterans of Stamford Bridge were at Hastings is not known.

It is clear that he recruited many of his force on the trip south. His soldiers came from as far a field as Somerset and Devon in the west and from Essex and Kent in the southeast. Harold knew that a battle was inevitable, as no form of dialogue to end the dilemma seems to have been made. Harold made the decision to fight William before he could consolidate any further. Harold chose the location of the battle with care. Caldbec Hill was chosen for a number of reasons.

Firstly it was well known in the area. It gave a natural advantage to anybody wishing to fight from there because of its natural all round visibility. It was easy to reach by road or track from London and was close (possibly too close) to William's position. By nightfall, at least 7500 men should have arrived. Made up of housecarls and fyrd, preparations were laid to challenge William as soon as possible. This would be indicative of Harold's impetuous nature. Why Harold chose to fight William the next day has always been something of a mystery. If he had waited another day for his full force to arrive, the outcome may have been totally different.

Theories

Many theories have been put forward for this. Harold always had a reputation for being impetuous and impatient. He may also have been informed of atrocities carried out by William on the population, so wanted to conclude this battle sooner rather than later. His hand may have been forced when William was informed of Harold's arrival and pre-empted his first move. If Harold was nothing else he was his fathers son, a patriot through and through. His father defied the king when be refused to punish the people of Dover when they were abused by Eustace of Boulogne, and paid the consequences. The Godwin family were for the people.

Go On the Offensive

William had now been in Hastings for almost two weeks. Food must have been in short supply, so he had soon to make a decision. Should he wait for Harold to come to him, or should he break out and go on the offensive? The decision was made for him. He was not prepared to be trapped or starved into submission. No mention seems to have been made about re-provision by Sea. There was plenty of time for his ships to return home for supplies, conditions permitting. A theory has been put forward that William may have had his ships burned to stop desertion. He left his men in no doubt that this was a do or die expedition. The morning of the 14th October 1066 would be the culmination of a battle between two men who had politically and mentally been at war for many years.

Old Hoare Apple Tree

Each side knew the location of the other. Harold on Caldbec Hill and its rallying point of the Old Hoare Apple Tree and William in Hastings. At first light, William assembled his men and informed them of what was expected of them through his generals. He would have had to send out his scouts to recall the foraging parties. Many atrocities were committed in this area and we can assume that foraging and ransacking went hand in hand. Prayers would have been said throughout the night prior to setting out. Weapons would have been sharpened and wagons loaded with armour and provisions.

William's men set off in a long column, due to the forest nature of the terrain at that time. William must have been relieved that the situation was coming to a conclusion as morale was possibly beginning to wane amongst the foot soldiers, who were less concerned about moral crusades and promises of wealth to the nobility, than staying alive.

Where Else Can We Fight?

Today, we try to analyze the logic behind the battle tactics of Harold and William. We wonder why Harold chose Caldbec Hill. It was very close to William's position in Hastings, which left himself open to counter attack. William seeing his opportunity, pounced upon it immediately. He knew what happened to Harald Hardrada and Harold's surprise attack. He was not going to be caught the same way. Harold therefore could be accused of naiveté. For the reason mentioned above, his choice was considered appropriate for the tactics he must have had in mind. Even today this area is still very forested.

The decision of where to have the battle may have been academic. It may have been the only piece of open ground in the area at that time large enough for the battle. Comments were made by chroniclers after the battle about how cramped the area was to stage such a thing. William's troops advanced to this open area, known today as Senlac Ridge. Located due south of Caldbec Hill, the natural terrain slopes south from Caldbec Hill to William's position. With natural depressions on either side and marshy ground and banks outside this area. It has always been considered an advantage to have the high ground, so Harold, in theory, was in the preferred location.

March North

It would have taken William and his men about 1.5 to 2 hours to march the 10 km north to Senlac Ridge from Hastings. Harold would have known that William had departed, from information received from scouts he would have sent out. Harold prepared for battle. William's force consisted of three main forces. The Norman army, commanded by himself. The Bretons, commanded by Alan Fergant and the Flemish army commanded by Eustace of Boulogne and William fitzOsbern.

Surprise

Seeing William take the initiative must have come as a surprise to Harold. He totally miscalculated the invasion in the first place by dismissing his ships for the winter. Now he was being forced into battle before he was really ready. Before William could arrange his battle formation, he had to negotiate two streams and marshy ground that was between himself and the open battlefield.

Once negotiated, his line was organized. Looking north, towards Caldbec Hill, the Bretons were on the left, the Flemish contingents were on the right and William's Normans were in the middle. Taking up normal battle ranks of archers in the front row. Depending on the length of the line, behind the archers would be six or seven rows of foot soldiers. Behind them, would be the cavalry. William would have set up his command post behind the cavalry.

Lull Before the Storm

To meet this challenge, Harold moved his men down from Caldbec Hill to within two hundred metres of William's position. The Saxon way of fighting was different to that of the Normans. The housecarls were in the front rank and were responsible for forming the shield wall. This would be particularly effective against the initial onslaught. Behind the housecarls were the fyrd or militia. Again, depending on the length of the line, would have been about ten deep.

Harold set up his command post behind and centrally positioned to give him an elevated view of proceedings. The time would now have been about 09:30. In many of the battles through history of this type, there seems to have been a level of protocol that was adhered to prior to proceedings. Similar to a lull before a storm, a short period of recollection seems to occur followed by taunting of the opposition. The Saxon war cry was Ut, ut ( or out, out ), Godemite ( God Almighty) and "Oli Crosse" ( Holy Cross ). The Normans would have responded in kind. The battle was about to begin.

A Minstrel Named Taillefer

If the chronicler, Wace is to be believed, the battle commenced with a heroic but foolhardy one-man attack on the English line by a minstrel named Taillefer. He was quickly cut down by the Saxon housecarls. This was the signal for the battle to begin in earnest.

As was traditional in Norman assaults, the front row, which consisted of archers, began to let loose their arrows in a concentrated barrage. This resulted in a limited success, due to the Saxon tactic of using the shield wall. This tactic had been developed by Alfred the Great and had been used ever since. It protected the front row of housecarls and the fyrd behind. The English had never used bows and arrows in battle and therefore could not return fire.

This became a problem to William because it required an exchange of arrows to keep the ammunition levels up. The Normans soon ran out of arrows. This reduced his efficiency somewhat. His archers were not attired for hand to hand conflict, nor were they trained or expected to.

Debate concerns whether William used crossbows in the front row. They did exist but none are shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. It is possible that they were used, but because they were so deadly and accurate, they were frowned upon by the Church and were banned in battles against Christian enemies. If they were used here, it is not surprising that they do not appear on the Tapestry as Bishop Odo commissioned it.

The High Ground

The English being on the high ground had the advantage. The Saxon line was virtually untouched. The arrows had done little damage. William ordered his foot soldiers forward. The English now responded. Not only were traditional weapons used but anything that could be collected in the vicinity. This would include rocks and home made slingshots which were particularly effective on the higher ground which afforded extra range. The barrage was very effective and caused serious problems to William's men. Heavy casualties were inflicted on them and forced William to use his cavalry probably earlier than he wanted to.

Ordering them to charge on the still intact shield wall, their tactics would have been to advance as close as possible and release their spears whilst turning back down the slope where a fresh spear could be collected. This was a difficult thing to achieve against a well-drilled shield wall, especially on a slope as steep as this. Horses would have panicked or fallen under this onslaught by the Saxons who would have used their spears and axes to good advantage.

The cavalry and infantry charges continued. The Saxons still held the upper hand. As hard as the Normans tried, they could not break down the shield wall. The use of the large Danish battle-axe particularly came into its own on the cavalry. This weapon had the ability to bring down the rider and the horse with a single blow. The housecarls were particularly well trained in its use. By about 12:00, the Normans were feeling the effect of the Saxon tactics. The Bretons on the left were having a particularly difficult time. They began to retreat back down the hill. William saw this from his command post and realized that this left his rear vulnerable from a pincer movement. Panic was now beginning to trickle from left to right. William had to do something or the battle would soon be over and his claim to the English throne in tatters.

William Is Dead

A rumour started to spread along the ranks that William had been killed. If this were so the battle would have been over. The panic was now widespread amongst the Normans. The Bretons were now in full retreat back down the hill. The Saxons followed in hot pursuit inflicting carnage on them. The Bretons were slowed down on the lower slopes by the stream and marshy ground below them. This allowed the Saxons to inflict more casualties on them.

No, I Am Not Dead

William made a bold decision. He decided to expose his face to his men to prove that he was still alive. Removing or lifting his helmet, he rode along the ranks that still existed to dispel the rumour. He was alleged to have reminded his men that there was no way back and that they were fighting for their lives. This seems to have had some effect. Odo seeing what was happening on the left flank, gathered up a number of his confused cavalry and rode to the area where the Saxons had advanced to. Seeing the horses advancing, they broke off battle and tried to return to their lines. The uphill trek was too far and the cavalry cut them down before they reached there.

It is almost certain that Harold did not sanction this advance on the Saxon right as it goes against all military strategy. He must have seen what was happening on the right and seems not to have taken up the challenge of a full frontal assault, which would surely have defeated the Norman army. Harold's brothers Gyrth and Leofwin were possibly killed at this time. This is included in the Bayeux Tapestry. It may be they who ordered this counter attack and therefore paid the consequences.

Everything Stops For Tea

What happened next is not completely clear. It would seem that there must have been a lull in the fighting. The Normans had begun to retreat and the advance Saxon force had been destroyed. There must have been some form of air gap between the forces. This would have given time for both sides and especially William to regroup, re-arm and to take some food and drink. The absurdity of the whole situation is highlighted by this episode.

The time would have been around 14:00. Harold knew that he could win this battle if he just held on until darkness. William cold not stay in the area all night and would have to retreat. Harold knew that retreat meant defeat for William. William very well understood this also. Apart from his right flank, Harold and his men were in very good shape. William must have been at his lowest ebb at this time. He had to think of a new tactic to break down the Saxon defenses.

Feigned Retreat

William was rather stuck for ideas mostly because of the terrain. He could not try a flanking movement because of the trees and forest on either side. He was finding it difficult if not impossible to break the Saxon shield wall tactic, especially on a slope as steep as this. What he planned to do was to entice the Saxons forward using a tactic that has been discussed ever since. It has been called the "feigned retreat". Observing what had happened on his left flank with the Bretons. If he could simulate that, and draw the Saxons forward, he might have a chance.

Many historians have debated whether such a thing can possibly be pre-arranged in the heat of battle. Usually those that have had any military experience say in can't. But the fact is that it was supposed to have been the deciding factor in this battle. The English lost, so something drastic must have gone dreadfully wrong with Harold's tactics.

Whatever was the truth, this is the story that survived nearly a thousand years.

Broken Ranks

William had to decide, if he was going to attempt the feigned retreat tactic. How could he draw the Saxons forward by giving the impression that it was a genuine retreat, and not what it actually was, a tactic. To this end he resumed battle. His infantry advanced but with limited success.

He had briefed his cavalry, who would be responsible for putting his plan into operation. There was no way his infantry could all have been informed of this plan and were probably used as cannon fodder to the overall picture. The cavalry advanced up the hill and engaged the Saxons and gave the impression that they were turning and running.

How the Saxons came to this conclusion is still unclear in the melee. It must have been pre-planned that they all turned away at the same time to make it seem as though some order to retreat had been given. Whatever the Norman cavalry did, it forced the Saxon army to break ranks and follow them down the slope.

Another question surrounds whether Harold gave the command to pursue them or not. I have been very critical of Harold so far. If he did make this crucial decision, he could be accused of total stupidity. The true facts will never be known, only the result. The Saxon line broke and the Normans were followed down the hill. Many housecarls and fyrd were killed in their enthusiasm to finish the fight. Harold must have become very worried at this development.

The Archers

Up until this stage in the late afternoon, things had been going very well for Harold but now were about to change. It is written that William used the feigned attack at least twice. Harold still held a reasonably strong position at the high point of the ridge. It was at this point that William risked everything. It was getting late, and the battle had to be concluded one way or another. William decided to use another plan. His archers who had run out of arrows in the early stages, were brought up close to the battle lines where they could collect their arrows. Firing over the heads of their own men so that they would land on the rear English lines, caused a number of casualties.

Harold Is Dead

It was at this point in the battle it is thought that a stray arrow killed or injured Harold by inflicting a wound in the eye. There is scant evidence to show that this is how Harold died. It is mainly taken from scene in the Bayeux Tapestry. The death of Harold soon spread amongst his men, causing derision. William ordered his infantry to stage a full frontal attack on the Saxon line. Fighting to the point of impossibility, the Saxons retreated up the hill and into the forest on the other side, possibly in the direction of London taking any horses that had been withdrawn for safety. The battlefield was littered with the dead and injured of both sides and Norman horses. The Saxon line was now broken. All that was left was a mopping up operation and the Kings housecarls who were prepared to continue the fight.

They valiantly surrounded their dead or dying king and with their battle-axes and swords, fought almost to the last man, as was their tradition. The Normans finally broke through where they saw the King lying. A knight run his sword through his thigh or decapitated his leg. This so infuriated William that he stripped him of his knighthood and threw him out of the army. The ridge was captured. William had won against all the odds.

The Malfosse Incident

There remains one incident that occurred after the main battle had finished. It is known as the Malfosse incident. It was becoming late in the afternoon and it was beginning to darken, so around 17:30, when in pursuit of fleeing Saxons they encountered a number of Saxons who obviously had not been involved in the battle but had arrived later.

It would appear that these men taunted the Normans into charging them. If they chose where to stand beforehand it was a good choice because it was behind an invisible ditch or pit, which later became known as the Malfosse or evil pit. Many of the horses and men tumbled into this pit where presumably they were finished off by the Saxons. This was a side issue that would have made no difference to the overall outcome of the battle.

By 18:30 it would have been too dark to proceed with rounding up any more Saxons. The injured had to be tended and the dead buried. The Malfosse incident is strange because nobody has been able to locate its position or confirm that it ever really happened at all. Harold's Standards of the Fighting Man and the Red Dragon were captured and sent to the Pope in Rome.

It was not the end - but the start of a new beginning for England.