The author of this article is Paul Murphy, except for a few additional explanations made by Medieval Scandinavia. The original article is available here. Details of the battles and combat of the period are sketchy at best, although some detailed descriptions of individual fights are recorded in the sagas. It is mainly from grave finds of the early period, and carved stones and legal texts from the later periods that we draw our knowledge of the combat of the Viking Age.

The laws of Norway, Denmark and Sweden state that every able-bodied man should own weapons according to his status. In Norway, a sword or axe, spear and shield must be owned. In Sweden and Denmark, this was recorded as a sword, spear, shield and iron helmet for each man. But the leidang (a royal agreement, kind of partly tax, between the landowners and the king) also records both hand bows and crossbows as standard equipment along a accounted number of arrows for each individual. In addition, it was common for the law to demand that each chieftain (steersman, helmsman) of a ship should have a mail shirt or protective jerkin. For more interesting information on the Vikings, please check out http://www.vikings.ndirect.co.uk/.

Combat equipment

Swords - the sword was the weapon of choice of the wealthy warrior and aristocracy of the Viking Age. Found throughout Europe, it is common for the sword blade to be imported from a Frankish workshop, and fitted with hilt fittings made locally. Many swords are engraved or inlaid with a makers mark or name, some even by fine copper, silver and gold ornamentals. A really good sword could even achieve a name of its own, like leggbit or steibit. The blade was sharp on both edges, around 100cm long including the tang (10cm), with a blade 8-10cm wide near the grip, tapering to a slightly blunt tip.

The sword was a slashing weapon, not generally used for thrusting. Constructed by "pattern welding", the central section of the blade is made up of twisted rods of iron, beaten together to form a strong and pliable core, and also leaving the pattern of the twisted rods in the blade. A harder (but more brittle) edge was then welded to the core.

Archery - the standard equipment for "gestir" (untrustable hirdmen) and "kerstisveinar" (thengs and drengs) was a "handbogi med tveim tylftum broddr" (a bow with a minimum of 24 arrows with a special arrowhead which penetrated a mail shirt), but regular hirdmenn (huscarls and berserker) had to have "þrim tylftum broddr" (a minimum of 36 arrows). The leader of the hirdmenn on board a ship, called "skutilsveinar", was supposed to have "handbogi eda lásbogi" (a hand bow or a crossbow). There were different kinds of bows in use but the most powerful was the "markbogi", a tremendous longbow which was placed on the ground when fired.

A good bowmen could kill at 400 meters (478 yards) or more with such a bow. The more traditional hand bow, the short- and longbow, was the more effective though. Theses could fire six-seven "broddar" (arrows) a minute and kill easily at distances up to 90-100 meters (short-bow) and 120-130 meters (longbow), even someone with a mail shirt. The crossbow was also used, but mainly by a few sub-leaders. The regular bows were made of yew or ash mainly and strengthened with horn, iron, leather or rawhide and birch bark (bjørkenever). But also the composite technique was well known and used, especially amongst the higher ranked. These bows were made by a combination of ash and birch usually. The nocks were of wood or horn, and the arrows probably of around (60-65cm short-bow) 80-90cm. A bowshot was called either a qrskot, qrdrag or qrvardrag.

Vikings used many kinds of arrowheads, for different purposes. Both arrows and arrowheads were commonly described as 'qr', but also here different names existed, such as 'qrvar' and 'oddr'. Broddr (also; hvítir broddr and finnr broddr) was the most deadly arrowhead because it could penetrate even a mail shirt in a long distance (120-130 meters). This is a slender almost needle-like arrowhead which was usually made by burning the tip of the arrow and shape it by a knife.

The hvítir broddr was of the same shape but made of shiny steel and the finnr broddr probably made of bone. Fleinn (no literary sources exists as a type) was a short triangle-like arrowhead made of bone or iron, in shape perhaps more commonly used as a spearhead.

Bíldqr was a rather special arrowhead, perhaps most famous for being used by Einar Tamberskjelve in the battle of Svolder. This is a kind of double headed arrowhead, which seen from the tip looks like a cross, because the lower (deeper) head is formed in cruciform to the tip (outer) head. Apparently several designs of bíldqr must have existed, because Finn Eyvindarson also used such a arrowhead, when he shot the bow out of Einar's hands in the same battle. This arrowhead was supposedly stump at the tip, but could also be a reversed split, as a fish tail (split pointed forward), and probably used to hunt birds.

Kolfr was more of competition arrowhead, often called bakkakolfr (used at competition ground), but also to hunt smaller animals, like rabbits and squirrels. Even this was stump at the tip and often made of bone. The reason for being stump is probably to avoid penetration of the hind. The Kvalsund-find of Norway hosted such arrowheads.

Krókqr was traditionally looking arrowhead, made to lock when penetrating, a kind of Viking Age dum-dum arrowhead. The Gulathing Law of Norway had firm penalties for the use of this kind of arrowheads against people. If such a arrow penetrated and had to be pushed though and broken at the other end, they called it mísvigi, and the penalty was three merker (Mark of silver). A krókqr which was impossible to remove again was said to be þar var lásqr, ok malla í. A special kind of krókqr were called mqlluqe (melluqr) or lásqr, probably a kind of krókqr which locked after or further when penetrating.

Spears - the most common weapon found in graves in Scandinavia during the earlier Viking Age. Cheap and easy to produce, they are nevertheless a very effective weapon which requires little skill or training to use. Most Viking spearheads are long and thin (from 30cm to as long as 50cm), and would have been equally useful as thrusting or slashing weapons. From the length of the heads and the reconstructed length of the shafts (2-2.5 meters), it is likely that such spears were used in two hands mostly.

Although it has been suggested that these could be used in conjunction with a shield, it is perhaps more likely that they were used without a shield once the combat closed beyond the area in which missiles could be useful. Shorter spears capable of being used as javelins are also found in great numbers, suggesting that the opening rounds of a battle in Viking times would involve a salvo of missiles as the lines closed.

Some of these are of a size which makes it difficult to decide whether they are small javelins or large arrow heads. In fact the spear heads are much alike the arrow heads explained above here. These could also be used as a single-handed weapon with a shield, providing the reach of a spear while retaining the defense of a shield.

Axes - the characteristic weapon of the Vikings, the axe is found in many burials and is shown on several carved stones. With at least three recognized types, it ranges from a short, single-handed version to the wide-edged axe of 1-1.5 meters in length, wielded in two hands with a swing which could behead horses with one stroke.

The shorter type is also believed to have been used as a throw weapon. The axe was probably far more important than most believe.

Shields - round and made of linden (lemon) wood, most shields would be relatively thin, lasting no more than one battle. Although it is thought that metal rims were used to add to the protection a shield gave, no evidence has been found for this. However, the use of leather or rawhide as either an armored rim or as a full cover for a shield would have been common. Ranging from 60cm to 120cm, the shield was the single item of equipment which changed most during the Viking Age.

The larger sizes are based on those found in the Gokstad ship burial, but as these were never intended for battlefield use they may not be an accurate representation of the general style. Shields were made from planks of wood, held together by a wooden or iron bar running from top to bottom of the shield. In the center, a cutout hole allowed the shield to be gripped with the hand covered by an iron boss of hemispherical or conical shape. Given the thin wood used, it is likely that shields were used to deflect a blow, rather than parrying it directly, as it is likely that sword and particularly axe blows would cut through the shield.

Towards the end of the Viking Age, kite-shaped shields became widespread, giving better protection to the legs. This was typified by the Norman Conquest (the Normans being second-generation Vikings), although the Saxon army also seems to have had some kite shields, probably only among the huscarls and the aristocracy.

Armor - the most common armor of the period was the mail shirt. Made from iron rings which were individually punched from plates or wound from drawn wire, each ring was linked to four others. In later examples, every second ring was solid, with the split rings being linked into the shirt and then riveted closed.

With over 30,000 links in the average shirt, the effort required to make a mail shirt was considerable. Most shirts had half-length sleeves, and reached to mid- thigh or knee length, protecting the most vulnerable parts of the body.

A good shirt would easily stop a slashing blow from a sword or axe, although the crushing effect of an axe blow would cause extensive bruising and possibly internal injuries. Against a thrust from a spear, a mail shirt would probably offer little protection against anything other than a glancing blow if the spear was used with two hands. Against a spear used single-handedly, the protection would have been good, preventing deep penetration and absorbing most of the force from the blow. However, most spearmen would have been trained to aim for the face or throat, negating the benefit of the mail shirt.

Battlefield Tactics

Leadership - contrary to later tactics, it was expected that a Viking Age leader would lead from the front. Having achieved his position partly by his skill at warfare, it was expected that the leader would stand in the middle of the front rank, leading the charge and the boar snout. All would depend on his personal fortunes - if he fell, it is likely that his army would withdraw or rout, although his huscarls were expected to stand over him and die with their leader. It seems to have been normal for the leaders of Viking Age armies to attempt to seek each other out on the battlefield, attempting to ensure a quick victory by cutting of the head of the army. Although not normally successful, in several cases the huscarls of one army have breached the shieldwall and slain the opposing leader, presumably as part of an advance led by their earl or king.

Berserker - The "berserker" were the most experienced, best equipped and the bravest amongst warriors, a kind of kamikaze suicidal storm troops. It is normal for them to be placed in the front rank in battles, as shock troops and to bolster the morale of the other warriors. They are also seen as separate units, operating as a rapid reaction force on the flanks or to reinforce areas which appear weak. The task of defending the standard and the leader of the army fell to the berserker and the stallari, the last a personal guardsman of high rank himself.

The Shieldwall - Once battle was joined, each side would form a line of warriors, perhaps several deep, formed into the "shield wall". Each warrior overlaps his shield on both sides, presenting a wall which is strong enough to stop a rushing opponent from penetrating and very effective against the opposite bowmen. From behind this wall the warriors would absorb the initial charge, and then loosen slightly to fight individual battles and small melees.

With many spears in the lines, the opponent opposite and those up to four down the line were within reach, making combat frantic and deadly. To step out of the line was to die. Retreat of even a few feet could lead to loss of initiative, and would eventually result in a wholesale withdrawal or even rout. With men standing so close and in several ranks, movement was limited, and even highly trained warriors would find it difficult to maneuver quickly on the battlefield. As a result, outflanking moves were common, and unless stopped quickly could prove overwhelming. At Stamford Bridge, such a move defeated Harald Hardrada (the Ruthless) in a surprise attack and he could not hold his right flank. Once encircled, defeat followed quickly.

Svinfylking - The "Boar's Snout", or "Swine Array" was held to be a trick given to the Vikings by the wily God of War, Odin. The sheer weight and momentum of the charge could drive the wedge through an opposing shield wall, turning the battle and spreading panic through the enemy. Although this is probably based on a Roman formation it appears unique to the Vikings at the time. To "fylka" means to regroup or reorganize the army and many different kinds existed.

Inauguration - Prior to Christianity we expect offerings to the gods, probably Odin, to have happened before a battle, and after Christianity was introduced probably a preying to God lead by a bishop. These happenings were regular ceremonies with the purpose to encourage the combatants. This was also when the berserks drank their poisonous drink, a mix of different ingredients which got them in a trance like stage that got them to go berserk.

Fylking - Before a attack begun, the king or leader would organize (fylke) the combatants and send out any orders. Tactics varied of course and reorganizing during a battle was common.

Advancing - Combat started usually at distance and with the use of the powerful "markbogi", followed by regular bow attacks while moving quickly against the other party in a shieldwall. The berserker would lead on in a frenzied attack, followed by the regular hirdmenn, and explode into action when close enough to avoid the opponent bowmen. Just in front of the berserker explode, we reckon javelins were thrown.

Shieldwall - In the shieldwall, most attacks were made over the head, crashing down onto the head, neck and shoulders. With spears used with two hands a chest or waist-level thrust across the lines, targeting a warrior involved in another fight, would have been very effective although it exposes the spearman to a similar attack from the opposition side.

Individual fights - Once the shieldwall breaks down, individual fights are likely to have been settled by wounding blows, leaving the opponent disabled but not dead. Many corpses are found with major leg injuries, suggesting that there were incapacitated and then left to bleed to death while the battle continued.

Targets - With running melees across a battlefield, those targets which are easy to hit are the most tempting - legs and arms are the most obvious. Against a warrior in a mail shirt, the lower arms, face and neck are the obvious target areas. Although the lower leg is uncovered, any attempt to reach this low would dangerously expose the warrior to a counter attack, and so is unlikely to be successful.

Death - Before Christianity, Vikings who died in a battle thought they would come to Valhall, a ever resting place for dead warriors and the home of all gods. A place where combats and other friendly games continued for ever, thus without any pain or death and with plenty of food and drinks to everyone. Valhall was the most glorified place a warrior could end up, so was important to bury the dead at the battleground.

Cease - Vikings traditionally gave grid to the defeated, the freedom upon an agreement of not to fight against them again. This was a kind of gentleman agreement by word of mouth, a promise which not necessarily always was obtained by either part in the future.