This column was inspired by an army list printed in the July 1992 (Vol VI., No. 3) issue of Saga which listed the army of the Lusignan kingdom of 1192-1489 AD. While in Cyprus, I have had the opportunity to study some of the military history and wanted to elaborate on the troop types presented in that army list and earlier types.

The Cypriot armies of the Medieval period had a diversity of troop types. These applied to both the Byzantine armies and those of the Lusignan monarchs. Rather than offer a selection of army lists, the aim of this column is to provide some background on the origin and role of the various troop types. The list will be annotated as Byzantine, Lusignan or both.

Strategic Plexus

Cyprus was considered a strategic plexus of the Byzantine Empire under Justin II and later was a battle ground for years between Byzantine and Arab forces. Following its conquest by Richard I in 1191 AD, the Crusaders and various Muslim armies (Turkish and Egyptian) fought for control of it.

Byzantine Forces

Until the Arab conquests of the 7th Century, Cyprus required only a small garrison despite its importance as a strategic base for operations elsewhere in the empire. The Arabs and Byzantines fought for control of the island for several centuries (7-10th Centuries) and even split Cyprus (similar to its modern predicament). Cyprus was reconquered by Nicephorus Phocas in 965 A.D. and a permanent garrison was established again. Byzantine military forces were probably similar to those of other themes until the 11th Century, when the government reduced the overall size of the military. The garrison under a stratopedarch consisted of warships and cavalry formed by Alexius I Comnenus (1092) and later the governor/commander was referred as Duke of Cyprus (dux).

The naval component was either disbanded or transferred as Isaac relied a Sicilian fleet to defeat Byzantine navy after he declared his independence in 1186 AD. The Sicilian Norman fleet supported Isaac Comnenus until withdrawn at end of war between Sicily and Byzantium. The land forces consisted of both infantry and cavalry; however, there is little information on numbers and composition. Some troops were bow armed as before the Battle of Tremethousha in 1191 AD, Cypriot forces harassed Richard's army with archery from ambush in river beds and from heights.

Stratiotai:

This is the only troop type given a specific name. The first force of stratiotai may have been established by Tiberius III Aspimarus, who was the admiral (drungarius) of the Cibyrrhaeotes theme (naval theme) before he seized the throne in 698 AD. They were maintained by a tax (stratia) levied on a number of hearths (families) but no details are given about numbers or type. The stratiotai were disbanded by the Lusignans but the tax continued to be collected. In several sources, stratiotai are referred to as soldier-farmers (see Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081 AD by Warren Treadgold) and the name was used to describe thematic troops before 1072 A.D. and later troops after the themata system was replaced by the Comneni and their successors.

The Byzantine troops were reinforced by units organized from specific ethnic groups. Following reconquest by Nikephorus Phocas, Armenians, Albanians and Maronites were employed as soldiers along with the local population of Cyprus.

Armenians served for a long period as soldiers in Cyprus as both infantry and cavalry. The connection was strengthened during the Lusignan period when the King of Cyprus was also the King of Armenia (Cilicia) starting with Peter I (1359-69). In 578 A.D., 3350 Armenian settlers installed as guards and small property holders in northern villages of Platani, Kornokepos, Ayios Khariton, and Armenokheri/Armenochori area (east of Limassol) and in a quarter of Nicosia between Konak Square and Paphos Gate. They fought for the despot, Isaac Comnenus, against Richard I. Isaac may have hired Armenians from the eastern part of Anatolia when he declared his independence from Constantinople.

The Armenians never lost their national identity and are mentioned in the early 13th Century making up the subject population with the Greeks. Cilician Armenians in the 14th Century would be similar to the Lusignan troops of Cyprus; knights, sergeants (turcopoles) and western style infantry (spear and crossbow).

Mardaites

In 688 A.D., 12,000 Mardaites withdrawn from Lebanon, where they fought for Byzantines against Arabs and were settled in Cibyrrhaeotes theme (the maritime theme) by Justinian II from Lebanon (after it was lost to the Arabs). They were mountaineers with the name having obscure origin, possibly rebel (Arabic) or similar to Maronite. The Mardaites were also recruited as sailors and may have formed a coast guard force that acted as marines. Kato Paphos had an Arab garrison until 680 AD (12,00-14,000 troops and families) when it was withdrawn as part of the settlement between Byzantines and Arabs (prior to transfer of the Mardaites).

Maronites (both)

Maronites settled in Kormakites, Asomatos, Karpashia and Kambyli. They were another Syrian group but no specific weapons or fighting style was accredited to them. They probably served as stratiotai.

Lusignan Army:

Lusignan settlement: Guy provided fiefs to 300 knights and 200 sergeants (and/or possibly turcopoles.) The latter owned two horses and a coat of mail. Guy maintained 70 knights as a household. Guy almost impoverished himself by providing these fiefs to his supporters from Outremer (Kingdom of Jerusalem). Besides the knights and sergeants, the army included an arriere-ban of all citizens capable of bearing arms, mercenaries and paid auxiliaries (mainly native troops) including the turcopoles. The military orders (Hospitallers and Templars) provided troops and naval forces.

Ruling Class

Consisted of Royal House and the nobles who came with Guy in 1192 and were mainly French. Later Italians (including Venetians) replaced many of the adherents of Queen Charlotte following the victory of James the Bastard in 1464. The 16th Century list of 126 noble houses includes many Byzantine names; some came with the Venetians but others may have been indigenous and gained status under the Lusignans. The remaining nobles were from Crusader, Italian and German families that settled in Cyprus after 1192 A.D. and before its conquest by the Ottomans in 1571 A.D.

Military Officers

The king appointed five officials and these did not become hereditary until the 15th Century (Seneschal, Constable, Marshal, Chamberlain and Chancellor). The Constable was subordinate to the king or regent and acted as military judge, and in charge of mercenaries (sodees, sordatoi, sordierides) dealing with pay and other administration.

The Marshal was the lieutenant of the Constable and had direct command of mercenaries, carried the royal banner, distributed the spoils after victory and replaced horses lost in battle. One other officer, the Turcopolier, was also numbered among the senior officers (held Adalia in Turkey during 1360's and replaced Regent during 1365 when Regent led Cypriot fleet).

Natives

These served as an arriere-ban or as personal retainers of the feudal nobles. There were several distinct classes:

Parici (neighbours): The lowest class was of the Paroikoi, who paid an annual head tax, provided two days service per week to their lords and submitted one-third of their produce. They were treated as serfs and were tied to the land.

Perperiarii:These were parici given freedom but still paid the same tribute for their land as parici and also paid an annual tax of 15 hyperpers (hence their name) or gold nomisma or besant. They originally included many civil servants and bourgeois of Nicosia.

Leftteri or Francomati: Emancipated parici and their lands and crops were free but paid between one-fifth and one-tenth to the lord. They were paid wages if asked to work for the lord.

Albanians (Stradiotes): While there are references to Albanians serving in the Byzantine army, they were probably similar to other Byzantine troop types. They were probably introduced during the 15th Century to replace the stratiotai, following the abolition of the original stratiotai who had become undisciplined and useless. They were part of the coast-guard. Their numbers were probably a few hundred. Like the other stradiotes from Albania, they probably fought mounted as light cavalry, a role which was suited to patrolling the coasts of Cyprus.

Bulgarians: Used during the 14th Century. Employed by Prince John of Antioch who is remembered for executing some of his men by defenestration (pushing them out of a window) because he was led to believe that they would betray him. His Bulgarians helped to defend Cyprus during the war with Genoa (1372-74). They were likely a mix of infantry and cavalry.

Catalans: The Grand Catalan Company, which was employed by the Byzantine Empire in the early 14th Century, eventually settled in the area around Athens, Greece and provided mercenaries to many of the regional powers including Cyprus. In Cypriot service, they were employed as sailors and marines.

Cretans: Cretans were used as sailors, marines and light infantry to supplement other European troop types.

Genoese: In July 1218, Genoa was granted extensive commercial privileges and in return, Genoa provided ships for military operations. Cyprus lacked its own navy at this time and it found it expedient to rely on Genoese support (much like the Byzantine Empire which also made commercial agreements with the Italian maritime powers during the late Middle Ages). Genoa raised a force of 14,000 to fight in the war of 1372-74. This included soldiers and sailors with at least 6,000 (mainly foot) involved in the siege of Famagusta.

Under the later Lusignan monarchs, Venetian condottieri were employed to supplement the native forces. These would be similar to those of the Italian Condotta period of the late Middle Ages.

The next three troop types are Asiatic and probably supplied forces primarily of horse archers.

Tatars: Tatars or Tartars were among the ethnic troop types hired by Lusignan rulers including Peter I and James II from Asia. Since the Cypriot rulers were involved in both the Levant (Crusader states) and Cilician Armenia, they were able to hire from the domains of the Ilkhan of Persia and successor states.

Karamanli Turks: In 14th and 15th Centuries, Cypriot involvement in modern Turkey resulted in conflict with the various Turkic states including the Ottoman and the Karamanli Turks. The latter fought against Cypriot forces sent to defend or conquer the southern coast of Asia Minor.

Mamelukes: Following the 1426 invasion by a Mameluke army, Egyptian forces played a role in Cyprus. King James II relied on a large contingent in the civil war with his sister. Following this conflict, James re-occupied Famagusta ending the Genoese control of the port. Having aided in all of his campaigns, the Mamelukes were then eliminated from Cyprus as their reward.

To give interested parties an idea of army size, here are some samples from the Lusignan period:

- 1310, an army of 700 (or 1700) cavalry and 7000 foot was mustered, and that same year, 500 cavalry and 5000 infantry participated in the celebration in Famagusta marking the restoration of King Henry II. The king was accompanied by 70 Hospitallers, 1800 cavalry and 4000 infantry when he entered Nicosia shortly there after.

- 1360's, army numbered 6000-12000.

- 1367, an army of 7000 and a fleet of 140-160 vessels was used to attack Tripoli (coast of Levant) including English, French, Genoese, Venetian, Hospitallers and Cypriots (and others).

- 1373, Genoa used 2000 Bulgarians, Greeks and Tatars against Cypriot forces (some Bulgarians later joined Cypriots).

- 1426, King Janus had an army of 1600 cavalry and 4000 infantry at Khirokitai to oppose 2000 cavalry and 8000 infantry (Mameluke army) transported in 180 ships.

Sources:

Hill, George A History of Cyprus
Richard, J. Chypre sous les Lusignans
Treadgold, W. Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081 AD