Julian was unique among Roman emperors of his time. He was a Greek intellectual who ruled an empire in a century dominated by soldiers who were almost all westerners. Nephew to the first 'Christian' Emperor Constantine the Great, Julian's abrupt death brought an end to his goal of replacing Christianity in the empire with the ancient pagan religion. Well educated in theology and philosophy, a 'bookworm' with no military or political training, he became recognized as one of the best of Rome's generals. He was Caesar in Gaul for only about five and one half years and formally crowned Augustus for only 19 months, but he became the stuff of legends.

His appearance did not fit the image of emperor of the world. He has been described as short of stature, hairy, thick necked, with a conspicuous nose, a staccato voice, prone to abrupt laughter, and almost constant nervous body motion. His soldiers in Gaul labeled him loquax talpa -- the talking mole. At times when he wore a beard, the scraggly growth earned him many references to a goat.

Julian was born around AD 331. In 337 his father and eight relatives were murdered at the instigation of Constantius, Julian's cousin and newly crowned successor to Constantine. Only Julian and his older brother Gallus were spared, possibly because of their innocuous youth. He then lived his young life under house arrest, and was eventually exiled to an imperial palace in Asia Minor from the age of 12-18. He was cut off from everything but books (and the occasional pagan mystic) until he was eventually allowed to travel to various cities such as Athens, to continue his studies. His brother Gallus was elevated by Constantius to Caesar, of the East in 351.

After a stormy three year reign, Gallus was recalled by Constantius and eliminated. If for no other reason than personal safety, Julian showed no outward interest in politics and remained in the contemplative life, outwardly comporting himself as a christian while actually being more interested in neo- Platonic philosophy and the pagan gods. The Greek Helios and Persian Mithras was/were his personal favorite(s).

In 355 Julian was elevated by Constantius to Caesar of the West. Julian remained more interested in the restoration of the old religion than in the imperial purple. Tradition has it that for his first two years Constantius allowed him to have no real power in Gaul and subordinated him to the military commanders already stationed there such as one Marcellus.

When he left for Gaul, Julian commanded only a bodyguard of about 360 cavalry and ballistarii (artillerists).' (At least one scholar, Browning, argues he may have been in overall military command from the outset.) For a discussion of mistranslation of Latin texts that may have lead to the mistaken, anachronistic belief that western Roman armies used crossbowmen see Petrin, Philolouical Notes on the Crossbow and Related Missile Weapons, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies, vol. 33 no. 3 Fall 1992.

In any event, Julian made preparations for command the way any militarily naive 'bookworm' would, he studied the military writings of his time, particularly Julius Caesar's commentaries and works on Alexander the Great. He now dreamed of "the din of battle and the slaughter of savages." XVI. 1 - 1

Julian was soon to establish a reputation as a cunning general and master of diplomatic deception, as a believer in conquest, swift, relentless, and decisive. He would turn northern Gaul back in time to an area of Roman domination.

Julian's entourage moved into Gaul in late 355. While still in Taurinorum (Turin) he learned bad news. The great Roman fortress at Cologne had been sacked by the Chamavi a Frankish tribe. The Rhine frontier was unstable. He arrived in Gaul and the city of Vienne. He was well received by the locals. Legend (or Julian propaganda) has it that many who heard of the coming of this Julianus Caesar believed him to be the reincarnation of Julius Caesar, come once again to restore the safety of Gaul. Julian busily spent the winter of 35/356 learning all he could about Gaul, its people, and its geography. He began to study first hand the organization and training of the Roman army.

The first military objective was to defeat and destroy the Alamanni, a well organized confederation of German tribes in the region of Baden and Wurtemburg. They had broken through the Upper Rhine defenses and raiding columns penetrated ever deeper into Gaul. The loss of the Cologne fortress weakened Rome's ability to respond. In 356, Constantius still made the strategic plans for Gaul. He would advance through Switzerland into the Black Forest while the army of Gaul drove east to the Rhine. Instead of taking the safest route, Julian chose a passage through dense forest area, apparently seeking contact with an Alamanni group that had recently attacked the Gallic city of Autun.

On the way to Tricasini (Troyes) Julian got his wish and his first military encounter. In the forest, the Roman column was ambushed and attacked on both sides. While it appeared they were outnumbered, the Romans took up strong flank positions and the Germans, not wanting a pitched battle, fell back. The battle itself was minor, but it was Julian's first and the first in a long string of victories. Confidence in Julian and within his troops was on the rise.

No major battles were fought during the campaign season but Julian's army continued on their route, driving the Alamanni before them and capturing several fortresses. The remaining Alamanni were left to Constantius and Julian turned north and retook the Cologne fortress.

For the winter of 355/356 Julian withdrew from the frontier and made headquarters at Senonae (Sens). Julian had only a small number of troops with him and none of the elite units normally provided in an imperial bodyguard. The bulk of the army was quartered nearby under the command of Marcellus. Unexpectedly, the Alamanni made a winter attack on Julian and besieged Sens. Inexplicably, Marcellus made no move to aid Julian. Julian's troops withstood the siege which was broken up for the lack of Alamanni supplies. Constantius recalled Marcelluls and replaced him with Severus, a long time commander new to Gaul. Julian may now have been in complete military control in Gaul.

Another campaign was planned against the Alamanni for 357. This time Constantius did not participate but sent 25,000 troops under the command of one Barbatio. Barbatio was to drive north from Italy while Julian and Severus drove east and catch the Alamanni in between. Barbatio proved ineffective. A large German raiding party slipped between the Roman armies. Barbatio allowed them to slip through again on their return. After the two armies met on the Rhine, Barbatio's troops were attacked by the Alamanni and driven back to Augst in headlong flight. Julian and Severus were left on their own with only 13,000 men.

According to contemporary sources (however reliable) the Alamanni numbered several times that. Julian proposed that battle be delayed a day to give the troops time to rest. His senior advisors may at this point have overruled the Ceasar or merely urged him on to attack. But the Romans did attack.

The Battle of Argentoraturn (Strasburg)

On a hot August day, the Roman army advanced toward a gentle sloped, wheat covered hill overlooking the Rhine. Warned by three mounted scouts atop the hill, the Alamanni had drawn up near the west bank, with cavalry on the left flank, light troops in a concealed in swamps and reeds and prepared positions on the right, and the main body of infantry in the center. They were commanded by King Chnodomar and his nephew. Serapion. Julian commanded the Roman right flank which contained the Roman cavalry and Severus the left.

The battle opened with Severus riding forward to try to tempt the Alamanni out of their concealed positions, which they obliged. Julian sent 200 cavalry against the Alamanni left to try to cause some disorder. A general melee ensued. Julian appeared in the thick of the fight. King Chnodomar in his helmet with flame color plume was prominent even after dismounting with some of the other German leaders to fight side by side with their foot soldiers. Severus and the left flank maintained close order and were pushing forward. Julian's cavalry was hard pressed by mixed groups of Alamanni cavalry and infantry.

The infantry were particularly effective in wounding Roman horses, leaving their unhorsed riders to be finished off. Some of Julian's cavalry, including some standard bearers broke and ran, prompted possibly by the death of their leader.*

*No cavalry units are mentioned by name. One unit of cavalry, that which originally fled at the opening of the battle is described on various pages as catafractarii, clibanarii, or simply armored cavalry. Three descriptions for one unit, none of which really makes clear whether these troopers rode armored horses or if it was only the men who were armored. Ammianus describes the Germans as employing light infantry with their cavalry during the battle to get under the Roman horses and stab them in their bellies. This may imply that the bellies were the most accessible area because the horses were armored, or may simply be the most effective place to deliver this type of attack regardless of whether the horse is armored. Since I tend to like the theme that at this point of his career Julian was sent off to Gaul as a figure head with little support because of the Augustus' own sense of self importance and his need for the best resources for his Persian campaign (rumor also appeared to travel with Julian that his cousin had only sent him to Gaul to fail and be rid of), I am inclined to go with the unarmored horse/heavy cavalry option. An exception may have been Julian's own bodyguard, he was after all of imperial blood now actively participating in a pitched battle and deserving of an adequate bodyguard.

The only other cavalry units mentioned as being with Julian in Gaul are the Scutarii and the Gentiles. The Scutari! were a light, javelin armed unit; the Gentiles, a unit composed of 'foreigners'. Both are guard units. Neither is mentioned as taking part in this campaign.

The cavalry headed straight back toward the infantry reserve behind them (probably the Comuti and the Bracchiati, both veteran u it was feared they would cause great confusion by trampling them under toot, but they were stopped by the shield wall of the Roman infantry; the infantry held their ground. Julian, under his purple draconarius rode over and rallied the cavalry; they and the Comuti and Bracchiati moved forward raising a mighty barritum war-cry.

The rest of the infantry battle was intense, loud shield boss to shield fighting. The air is recorded as filled with javelins and darts, and the competing war cries of the respective forces. Gradually the Alamanni became disordered in the ferocity of their attacks and began to fall back. The Batavi and Reges now were thrown into the fray. Although the battle was soon to be decided the Alamanni made one last ef fort. In the Roman center, a band of nobles and their followers managed to break completely through the Roman line into the rear, where they were met by yet another Romanr eserve unit - the legio Primani. The legio stood fast and soon the Alamanni were in headlong flight to the Rhine. The Romans pursued to the river. Julian ordered that they stay out of the water but they continued to shower the fleeing enemy with darts.

King Chnodomar was captured. 6,000 Alamanni corpses were reported counted on the field not including those who died in the Rhine and were washed away. Roman losses were counted as 243 men and four senior officers.

After a brief rest period, Julian decided to take advantage of the morale effects of the battle and Prepared a punitive invasion across the Rhine. After some reluctance on the part of the soldiers, the Rhine was bridges and crossed. Julian marched incountry systematically Pillaging and destroying the German territory. They pushed on until they had captured and repaired a fort deep in the heart of German territory that had been built 250 years before by the emperor Trajan.

The campaign in 357 had crippled the Alamanni: next in turn were the Franks. Julian's goal was to subject them to a display of power that would discourage future hostilities and reestablish the chain of Roman forts from Cologne to the English Channel that had formerly kept northern Gaul safe. Catching the Salian Franks unprepared, Julian defeated them in a series of minor battles.

In 359, the remnants of the Alamanni were his victims. Again the troops reluctantly crossed the Rhine. This time the goal was not only destruction but the recapture of Roman Prisoners previously lost to the Alamanni. By careful interrogation of survivors in every village and city, Julian had prepared a list of all soldiers and civilians previously carried away. Julian promised death and destruction if all were not returned. as a result, hostages came streaming out of Germany: Julian claims a total of 20,000. Many Germans were recruited into the Roman army promised by Julian that he would never compel them beyond the Alps.'

By the end of 359, the Gallic provinces were safer and more prosperous than they had been in ages.

Turning Point

360 became a turning point for Julian. Constantius was at war with the Persians and wanted to present as large an army as possible. Julian had successfully pacified the West so Constantius felt his troops would now be more valuable in the east. Orders were sent to Julian to transfer four auxilia palatina units (the Aeruff, Batavi, Celtae, and Petulantes) to the east along with 300 men from each remaining unit. in one stroke, Julian would be deprived of 1/2 to 2/3's of his command. Many of the involved troops were those whom Julian had promised would never need cross the Alps: few relished leaving their homes to fight in Persia.

Julian Part 2: Augustus