Armies, both North and South, may have entered the Civil War with a naive attachment to the tactical precepts of a bygone era, but they definitely emerged with a firm grounding in warfare's harshly dictated realities. The lessons were dearly bought. Still, the open, bloody fields of '61 and '62 did finally give way to the eartworks of the late war -- as both sides took to the ground for survival.

This evolution from open fields to trench warfare is worth examining, especially in the context of gaming. The increasing use of field fortifications throughout the war represents the sector of greatest tactical evolution, and hence is also the most difficult area to successfully create in a game series purporting to simulate the whole war.

Opinions were always mixed concerning the use of field defenses, with some commanders insisting that such works deny their troops of some "offensive spirit" and encourage cowardice. To further aggravate the problem, even the definition of the word "breastworks" changed as time went on. Early on, fences, piled logs, or even piles of felled brush might be referred to as breastworks in regimental commander's reports.

By late 1864, both sides were digging elaborate trench systems with firing steps, head protection, and support trenches -- all forming lines studded every few hundred yards with fully developed artillery bastions. In between these extremes, troops adapted to the newer conditions of warfare with varying degrees of reluctance.

Antietam was probably the last eastern battle in which virtually no effort was made by the troops to provide themselves with improved positions -- not insignificantly, the battle was also the bloodiest single day of battle in American history. To be sure, the Rebels used the Bloody Lane, but that was a naturally occurring feature. Even the "rifle pits" employed by Toombs' Georgians on the bluff above Burndde's Bridge were more depressions in the mucky soil, augmented slightly, than any real defensive works.

Three months later at Fredericksburg, Longstreet's powerfully strengthened the Marye's Heights position, most notably by digging a trench behind the famous Stone Wall, creating a five-foot bulwar to fire from. Thirteen separate Union assaults faced against this line, with a staggeringly disproportionate loss ratio of attackers to defenders. The Union troops took notice, and, by the next May at Chancellorsville, a number of Union units could be found erecting defensive works -- mostly of the felled tree and piled brush variety.

Confederate defenses continued to develop as well -- when Lee moved on Hooker, he left Jubal Early to defend a heavily fortified line. In what became known as Second Fredericksburg, Union forces attacked this line and took it -- mainly because the small Rebel force was spread out over a great distance.

Gettysburg

Gettysburg, because of the voluminous writing it generated, provides a wealth of data about almost every aspect of the war -- breastworks included. The Confederates make little mention of any works being built there. This is of little surprise since they were on the attack all three days. The Union provides interesting glimpes at the diversity of effort being applied at the time.

On the night of July 1st, John Geary (commander Second Division, 12tb Corps) told his officers that he was adverse to building rifle pits because "it unfitted men to fighting without them." In reply, the Third Brigade commander, George Greene, said that "The saving of life was of far more consequence to him than any theories as to breastworks...and [his men] would have them if they had time to build them."

As a result, the men on Culp's Hill erected quite strong breastworks -- much to the dread and annoyance to Rebels listening to the ring of axes all through the night.

The very focal point of Pickett's Charge provides further illustration. Holding the line at the famous 'Clump of Trees' was Webb's Brigade (2/2/2) and speciflcally the 69th PA. The 64th placed itself behind a low stone wall directly in front of the Rebel objective.

They made very little effort to improve the two-foot high wall, augmenting it with only a few fence rails. No digging was done at all. Even the first rank, kneeling, was exposed from the waist up. The second rank, standing, was even more exposed. The wall certainly provided an easily defined rally point, and used as a guide to dress the battle line, but had only a limited effect in stopping enemy fire.

A few hunderd feet to the south, Hall's Brigade (3/2/2) strengthened their positions by digging. They too were placed behind low stone walls with added fence rails, but they also piled up dirt with whatever utensils came to hand. Unfortunately, shovels and picks were not available, and no doubt this lack of tools also contributed to the haphazard nature of the Union defenses.

The tool problem was soon to be corrected, as more commanders cast aside impractical notions like Geary's for the very real protective benefits of earth-works. By the time of Mine Run (fall, '63), both armies were digging in quite extensively and digging tools were making their way further forward.

Final Transition

The final transition came with abruptness, for being two years in development. In the Wilderness, both sides dug in, but their works were of the piled logs and dirt type--effective, but not very elaborate. There was a tendency for troops to start digging in almost immediately, but the lines were usually occupied for less than 24 hours.

A week later, at Spotsylvania in the middle of May, a quantum improvement in breastworks occurred. Now, with a little more time in one place, trenches with log retaining walls sprang up strengthened by headlogs and other over head cover. The first phase had begun somewhere between May 7th and 12th. It would end with the complae trench systems of Petersburg, ushering in a new phase of war. Not until the final hours of the Appomattox retreat would the Army of Northern Virginia again be driven to open field campaigning.

West

In the west developments mirrored those in the east. At Stone's River (Dec. 31 '62 to Jan. 2 '63) little mention is made of breastworks, but by Chickamauga (September '63) both sides were routinely using intermediate-style works. One of the best descriptions of later defensive works is provided by Jacob Cox, a Union General in the Atlanta campaign. Cox even pinpoints the transition to universal adoption of digging in -- occurring in June '64 in front of Dallas and New Hope Church, Georgia. From that point forward, he claimed, the Federals developed the habit of erecting works at every significant stop, and of converting them into full trenches if in position more than a day.

Cox's description of worics routinely constructed by both armies bears mention, as it leaves little doubt that both officers and men were now convinced of the need for cover. The officers laid out the prospective line and -- while a skirmish line afforded protection -- the men set to work. A thick log revetment was erected, which in turn supported a thick wall 10 to 13 feet thick at the base. headlogs were emplaced to afford maximum cover and trees felled to the front to form an oostacle line.

Most significantly, the needed tools were now carried with the ammunition trains or with the troops themselves, and they were in relative abundance.

Unquestionably, these trenches were virtually impregnable when opposed by the offensive tactics of the day. Cold Harbor illustrated the futility of the offensive the best, places like Kennesaw Mountain and Franklin also readily show the disparity in loss between a dug in defender and his attacker.

Rules

The question is: How do you capture this evolving tactical concept in the relativdy static setting of a game? Such a rule needs to be easy to use but realistic enough to have meaning.

When we wrote the CWB series rules, we were unable to devise a satisfactory rule that was neither overly complex or too counter (read: cost) intensive. Not every battle could simply have the trench lines printed on the map as permanent features which is the reason for the trench defensive benefits on the various game charts. It was the middle period--winter '63 to summer '64--that raised the complexity issue.

What follows is a compromise. We don't intend to start adding countersheets to our games just to include the necessary 60-70 breastwork markers required of a mandatory rule. That solution would raise the game's final cost by some $6-10 for what amounts to a small gain in realism.

[Ed Note: Thc amount quoted in cost is actually quite accurate. Gamers typically underestimate the effect of small changes in manufacturing because they do notfully realize the impact of wholesale discounts and the like.]

Hence, this optional set of breastwork rules is offered with the caveat that gamers will need to crease their own markers or borrow them from other games. The counters will need to be mared on one side with an "under construction" symbol, and the completed works on the other. A completed breastworks should afford three contiguous protected hexsides which correspond to the frontal hexsides of an infantry unit in line. For want of a more complex "learning process" rule, the following should not be used in games that are occurring before January 1, 1863.

1. Who Can Build Breastworks

Only infantry units in line formation who are at least four hexes away from any enemy unit may build breastworks. Artillery and cavalry may occupy a finished breastwork hex, but may not build them alone. Cavalry lacked both the tools and inclination to do such work, whlle artillery had the tools but not the manpower to do so.

2. Construction of Breastworks

On any turn, at the start of the Movement and Close Combat Phase, the player places any "under construction" markers he desires, and flips over any previously placed markers (from earlier) to their breastwork side as long as the infantry unit remains qualified as described above in 1. Under construction markers on units which are not at least four hexes from the enemy may not be flipped over, but may remain in place indefinitely until the proper conditions are fulfilled. Any unit masked with an under consttuction marker may move, but if this leaves the hex without a qualified unit (as per 1, above) the under construction marker is removed.

3. Facing and Removal of Completed Breastworks

At the time the marker is flipped to its completed side, it may be faced as desired.

Once this is done the marker may never change its facing. Only one breastwork marker is allowed per hex -- you may not create miniature forts using multiple markers. At the end of any Movement and Close Combat Phase in which a breastwork marker is alone in a hex, it is removed. If one side captures any breastwork hex via close combat, the marker is removed. A defender who successfully repulses an attacker keeps the marker, but if both sides vacate the hex, the marker is removed.

4. Effects of Breastworks

A unit fired upon via breastwork protective hexsides alone (determined by the orientation of the marker) receives two benefits: a -1 to the die (not a column shift) on the Fire Table, and a + 1 shift on the Morale Table. Furthermore, it is not required to retreat given a morale result marked with a single asterisk (*).

5. Leaders and Breastworks

Considering that these rules are optional, consider the following very optional!

In any game prior to 1 January 1864, a leader must successfully obtain initiative before any unit in his command may construct breastworks. Contrary to the Second Edition rules -- for this purpose only -- more than one leader may roll for a given formation, i.e. if a corps commander fails, his division commanders may check also. Independent units always have permission to build and do not need initiative.

Conversion of Breastworks to Trenches

Units may only convert breastworks to trenches in a game occurring after 1 May 1864.

1. The Process of Conversion

Breastworks may be converted into trenches by regularly qualified units which remain qualified for 12 hours of game time. While converting, these units may not move. If an enemy unit approaches within 4 hexes, the conversion is interrupted (see 2, below). Obviously some sort of wrinen record will need to be kept of units attempting to convert and the elapsed time spent on conversion.

2. Interruption of Conversion

A unit thtt is interrupted does not lose accumulated time (unless, of course, said unit was forced from the hex in which case the breastworks themselves are forfeit) but instead may wait and resume accumulating time when it again fulfills the requirements.

3. Completion and Effects of Trenches

At the end of 12 hours -- specifically at the end of the friendly Movement and Close Combat Phase replace the breastworks marker with a trench marker. I suggest using markers similar to the breastwork ones with double lines or a different color. Trenches provide protection only from fires through the same set of hexsides the breastwork marker did. The benefits are those given in the series rules and on the standard charts and tables.

Once completed, trenches are never removed from play (unless new trenches are built in the hex with a different facing, etc.) and either side may use them (given the facing of the trench marker.)

[Ed Note: Save this article for use when Bloody Roads South comes out next April.]