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Introduction:
In both the Mexican-American War and the War of Texas Independence the predominant military and political leader of Mexico was General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. In fact, histories of Mexico often refer to this period as the Age of Santa Anna. Santa Anna fought the Spanish for Mexican independence, fought the Texans in their bid for independence, fought the Americans, and schemed with and against the French during the Maximillian Adventure. As the self-styled Napoleon of the West, he modeled his army on that of Napoleon Bonaparte, but he enjoyed little of the Corsican's success.
This booklet gives detailed treatment two of Santa Anna's wars, the Mexican-American War and the War of Texas Independence. (While the other two wars will be covered more completely in future supplements, the weapons for the Maximillian Adventure have been added to the chart card.) These two wars, like the American War of 1812, were essentially Napoleonic Wars in North American. While generally overlooked by gamers, these two wars provide an interesting array of battles and skirmishes. While there are no battles in these wars to compare with the scope and scale of Austerlitz, Jena, Eylau, etc., the battles are nonetheless interesting. Because the scale of these two wars is very different from those in Europe, the scale of the rules is different as well.
Within these covers, the reader will find two complete sets of rules: a tactical set and a skirmish set. Between the two sets of rules, the reader can recreate the smallest skirmishes of these wars or the largest battles. While the tactics are essentially Napoleonic, we have gone to great lengths to build into the rules those characteristics that make these two wars unique and interesting. We spent a great deal of time in numerous histories and memoirs in order to capture the feel of the period. We think that you will be pleased with the realism and playability of the two system.
We sincerely hope that you have as much fun using these rules as we did developing them.
A Brief History of the War of Texas Independence
War is our only recourse. No halfway measures, but war in full.
The causes of the War of Texas Independence are well documented. The Texans wanted some degree of self-rule, but Santa Anna seemed unwilling or unable to grant this desire. Still, Texan leaders managed to maintain peace until Stephen Austin went to Mexico City to speak with Santa Anna and was thrown in jail. Upon his release and return to Texas, Austin uttered the quote at the head of this section, and the revolution began.
The war began in 1835 when a Mexican detachment was sent to Gonzales to retrieve an old, useless cannon that the Mexican army had given the citizens to frighten Indians. This cannon had become a symbol of independence to the citizens of Gonzales. They fired on the Mexican detachment, scattering it.
Austin was elected leader of the 300-man Texan army, and the troops elected to attack General Cos at San Antonio. On 27 October, a Texan force led by Jim Bowie and James Fannin defeated a larger Mexican force at Concepcion. The Texans, however, did not have enough force to storm Cos' entrenchments, so they sealed into a siege.
Though the U.S. government remained neutral, men and munitions from the United States soon began to pour into Texas. Responding to the appeal by the Texas convention for aid (to help fellow Americans and in exchange for land) volunteer companies formed across the Southern United States and marched to Texas.
After months of siege, many of the Texan volunteers began to get discouraged and leave for home; however, the U.S. volunteers were unwilling to give up so easily. The Texan army attacked San Antonio in early December, and after four days of house-to-house fighting, Cos surrendered. Since 300 Texans had defeated 1400 Mexicans (which, except for the Morelos regular battalion, were militia), most Texans believed that the war was over and went home. Most of those who remained under arms embarked on a mad venture to invade Mexico (led by James Fannin). As a result, Colonel Niell and 104 men were all that were available to defend the recently captured Alamo, in San Antonio.
Santa Anna, however, had no intention of letting Texas go. He formed a 6000-man Army of Operations in Texas, organized around a core of experienced and well-trained regulars and active militia. Sam Houston, now head of the Texan army, planned to trade space for time, avoiding battle while withdrawing deeper into Texas, extending Santa Anna's supply lines and waiting for the right time to strike. He sent Jim Bowie and thirty volunteers to destroy the Alamo, where Niell's force was by now half-starved.
After a grueling march, Santa Anna reached San Antonio a month earlier than expected. By now the Alamo garrison had "swelled" to 145 men (including Davy Crockett) and was commanded jointly by William Travis and an ill Jim Bowie. The defenders also had some twenty captured Mexican cannons. The siege of the Alamo began on 24 February 1835 with the shelling of the fort. Travis sent a number of appeals for aid. At Goliad, Fannin, the nearest assistance, decided not to arch to San Antonio after a supply wagon broke down enroute. On the 29th, the twenty-five-man Ranging Company of Mounted Volunteers, from Gonzales, joined the garrison of the Alamo. On 3 March, Santa Anna was also reinforced and had about 2000 men available for the final assault.
The final assault began at 5 AM on 6 March in four attack columns and a reserve. Losing approximately 600 men, the Mexicans overwhelmed the garrison, killing all but one of the defenders (one convincing the Mexicans that he had been a prisoner of the Texans) - including six Texans who had surrendered only to be hacked to death at Santa Anna's orders.
Then began the "Runaway Scrape" in which Houston retreated before the Mexicans, gathering men along the way. Fannin at Goliad had Texas' best force, however, he refused to place his command under Houston. Frittering his units away against Mexican general Urrea's division, Fannin burned his fortifications and marched to join Houston. He was caught in the open by a large Mexican force and after some fighting (in which seventy Texans were wounded and ten killed) surrendered under promise of fair treatment. On 27 March, 342 of the prisoners were marched out and shot under the Mexican Act of 1835.
Continuing his retreat, Houston began to turn his rabble into an army. When he reached Groce's Plantation he had 800 men and two 6-pound cannon. Santa Anna, in pursuit of the Texan government and Houston's army had split his army into four groups, intending to reform them at Fort Bend. Santa Anna, at the head of 750 men from Sesma's division had out distanced his supports, and Houston turned to face him at San Jacinto.
Santa Anna was joined at San Jacinto by Cos, bringing his strength to almost 1300 men and one cannon. On 21 April, neither side attacked initially, and by noon, the Mexicans had stood down and were taking their siesta. Houston, knowing his men were spoiling for a fight, ordered an advance at 4:30 in the afternoon. They advanced to within 200 yards of the sleeping Mexicans (Santa Anna among them) before shots were fired. As the Mexicans rushed to their improvised breastworks, Houston lost all control of his men. Shouting "Remember the Alamo!" and "Remember Goliad" the Texans reloaded as they ran. The fury of the Texan charge completely broke the unprepared Mexicans. In eighteen minutes, at a cost of seventeen wounded and six dead, the Texans killed 600 Mexicans and captured 750 others, including Santa Anna.
In exchange for his life, Santa Anna signed an armistice, granting independence for Texas. While the Mexican government repudiated the treaty, for all intents, Texas won its independence at San Jacinto.
A Brief History of the Mexican-American War
Poor Mexico! So far from God and so close to the United States.
The United States in accordance with the prevailing philosophy or Manifest Destiny essentially manufactured the Mexican-American War. The causes are mostly political, and to some extent the annexation of Texas sped the two countries into war. In an effort to bring Mexico to the negotiating table over the U.S.- Mexican border, President Polk applied a strategy of graduated pressure. While this strategy worked in the U.S.- British negotiations over the Oregon Territory, it led Mexico and the United States to war. It is not the purpose of this very short history of the Mexican-American war to detail the causes of the conflict but to outline the key events.
The war was essentially fought in three small campaigns. The first was General Zachary Taylor's invasion of what is now Northern Mexico. The second was the bizarre campaign in California, involving a really odd cast of characters. The third, and most famous, was General Winfield Scott's invasion at Veracruz and subsequent march to Mexico City.
Taylor's Campaign
Early in 1846, President Polk ordered General Taylor and the bulk of the U.S. Army's regulars to Southern Texas so that the U.S. would be prepared if Mexico caused trouble over the annexation of Texas as a state. On 9 March, Taylor advanced south out of Corpus Christi. Just north of the border from Matamoros, Taylor established Fort Texas. He left the 7th Infantry (about 500 men plus artillery) to defend the fort and took the bulk of his command to Port Isabel on the coast.
Taylor fortified his base of supply and marched back toward Fort Texas with his supply train. General Arista, commander at Matamoros, besieged Fort Texas and placed the bulk of his army between Taylor and the fort.
As Arista planned, Taylor attacked, and the Americans defeated General Arista's army at the battles of Palo Alto (8 May) and Resaca de la Palmas (9 May) near Matamoros. At Palo Alto, the 8th Infantry formed a hollow square to repel Mexican cavalry charges. Eventually the Mexicans withdrew to a better position at Resaca de la Palmas. Resaca de la Palmas the next day was a confused fight in tall chaparral in which the skill and initiative of the American small-unit leaders, used to fighting Indians, were critical. This battle also involved the successful charge of May's dragoons in column of fours up a road to clear a Mexican battery.
Meanwhile, Santa Anna had been building an Army near San Luis Potosi and began moving northward to meet Taylor. Santa Anna's march over mountains and through deserts resulted in upwards of 5000 casualties. While Santa Anna was moving northward, General Taylor met Mexican General Ampudia's army in the fortified city of Monterey. After four bloody days (20-23 September) of house-to-house fighting and assaults on fortifications, Taylor seized Monterey and made the city his base for future operations.
For purely political reasons, Polk determined that he could not let General Taylor, a member of the opposite political party, gain too much glory in Mexico, so he appointed General Winfield Scott to head up the invasion of Mexico via Veracruz. Scott determined that he needed many of Taylor's regulars for his march to Mexico City, so he took the bulk of Taylor's force, leaving him some volunteers, and essentially stopping his advance.
Santa Anna found out that Taylor's force had been badly weakened, and he determined to overwhelm Taylor then march to meet Scott's invasion. The result was the near-run battle of Buena Vista in which Santa Anna's army was narrowly defeated but was forced to quit the field. It was at Buena Vista that Jefferson Davis (later to be President of the Confederacy) at the head of the Mississippi Riflemen gained his undeserved reputation as a great military leader by repelling a Mexican attack.
Scott's Campaign
Scott began his campaign as all invaders of Mexico: with an amphibious landing at Veracruz. After a brief siege and bombardment (9-29 March 1847), the garrison at Veracruz surrendered, and Scott wasted no time marching his Army west from the fever ridden plain of the city.
Santa Anna had formed another army and prepared to meet Scott at Cerro Gordo along the National Highway. The first day's fighting (17 April 1847) was inconclusive. During the night, Captain Robert E. Lee of the Engineers, found and improved a track through what Santa Anna considered impassible terrain. Scott marched two brigades around Santa Anna's flank, falling on his rear the next morning. Santa Anna's army routed. After a three-month halt in Puebla awaiting new volunteers, Scott continued to Mexico City.
At the twin battles of Contreras and Churubusco (19-20 August), again with much debt to the engineer officers on his staff, Scott badly defeated the Mexicans under Santa Anna and cleared the southern approaches to Mexico City. After his army was defeated at Contreras, Santa Anna decided to pull his men back into Mexico City. To do this, he needed to keep the Churubusco bridge open for his fleeing troops. The defenses around Churubusco involved a strongpoint at the bridge itself and the heavily fortified San Mateo Convent. A tenacious Mexican defense of both positions allowed most of the Mexicans to escape, and the American's narrowly missed an opportunity to cut off and destroy Santa Anna's army.
On 8 September, Scott ordered General Worth, one of his division commanders, to attack at Molina del Rey to clear one of the causeways leading to Mexico City. Worth's attack was poorly planned and had insufficient artillery preparation. The result was one of the more contested battles of the war, with Mexican general Echeagaray conducting numerous counter attacks. In the end, the Mexicans were defeated and driven back.
On 13 September, Scott launched the famous attack on the Citadel of Chapultepec: on the outskirts of the Mexico City. The citadel was viciously defended, but eventually the Americans stormed the walls, following up with a rush through the streets of Mexico City. At this point, while there was a significant amount of political maneuvering still to be done and some fighting along Scott's line of communication back to Veracruz, the significant battles of the campaign were done.
California
While this campaign was really a side show, the United States grabbed a vast amount of land that later became extremely valuable. The cast of characters is unique, and the operations disjointed.
Colonel Stephen Kearny was ordered to march from Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, to occupy Santa Fe and if practical continue into California. After seizing Santa Fe, Kearny detached Colonel Doniphan and his mounted Missouri Riflemen to pacify Indian tribes in New Mexico, and he left for California. Along the way, Kearny learned that American sailors had seized the ports of California with little resistance, so he sent all but two hundred of his men back to Santa Fe. Kearny's march through the mountains, assisted by Kit Carson, was harrowing, but eventually he reached California.
In the meantime, Brevet Captain John C. Fremont of the U.S. Army Topographical Engineers and his armed expedition of sixty frontiersmen was conducting his third expedition into northern California. In March 1846, before actual war had been declared, when his expedition was ordered to leave the region by Mexican General Castro, Fremont instead hoisted an American flag and prepared for battle. When he learned that Castro was approaching with artillery, Fremont wisely withdrew northward.
Marine Lieutenant Gillispie, who had been sent alone and incognito through Mexico on a secret scouting expedition for President Polk arrived in Monterey (via Commodore Sloat, commander of the U.S. Pacific Squadron) and eventually found Fremont. At nearly the same time, a group of American settlers revolted, proclaiming the short-lived Republic of California.
When Commodore Stockton assumed command of the Pacific Squadron, consisting of five ships, he enlisted Fremont's California battalion into naval service. Using these troops and landing parties of sailors, he captured all the major ports in California, including the village of Los Angeles.
During the ensuing occupation of California, Stockton placed Gillispie in charge of the garrison at Los Angeles. His heavy-handed policies soon caused the Mexicans - who had originally welcomed the Americans - to revolt. In September 1846 Gillispie was force to surrender his forty-six-man garrison, and San Diego and Santa Barbara soon fell as well. Stockton, not counting on any help from Fremont which help he never received - sent a landing party to retake Los Angeles.
Kearny's force, badly bedraggled after its grueling mountain passage, arrived in California at the Valley of San Pascual. Kearny had learned of the fighting in California, and he expected trouble from Mexican General Pico. On the night of 5-6 December 1846, the Mexicans discovered Kearny's reconnaissance element, which had not determined the composition of the Mexican force. Kearny ordered an attack at 2:00 AM by his exhausted men and animals. His men charged in column down a narrow ravine in what became know as the Battle of San Pascual, the only real battle of the California campaign. Pico's men feigned retreat, baiting Kearny's force into an ambush. On command the 160 Mexican cavalrymen turned and counter attacked. Later Kearny's beaten men took up a defensive position on a small hill, repelling numerous Mexican night attacks. The battle turned into a siege as Kearny sent messengers to Stockton for help. Eventually Gillispie arrived, and the combined force marched to San Diego.
A Brief History of the Maximillian Adventure
The story of the French intervention in Mexico (to establish a great Catholic Latin Empire in North America) is an interesting, confusing affair. While much of the action was political, there were a number of battles that are interesting to wargame.
In 1857, President Juarez came to power, adopted a new constitution, instituted land reform, sold off much of the Catholic church's extensive assets, and established freedom of worship. This of course caused much bitterness on the part of the conservatives, and a bloody civil war, The War of Reform, erupted. While the Army (supporting the conservatives) held Mexico City, the liberals held everything else, and soon the conservatives were defeated. In the process, however, Mexico's economy was wracked, and Juarez suspended payments on foreign debts.
In response, Britain, Spain, and France launched a joint expedition to seize the customs house in Veracruz (December 1861 to January 1862). While Britain and Spain soon withdrew their forces, the French did not, expecting easy conquest. Despite expectations, 4000 Mexican soldiers defeated nearly 6000 well-drilled French regulars outside Puebla on 5 May 1862 (a battle still celebrated in Mexico).
Stinging from this defeat, Emperor Napoleon III sent 28,000 French soldiers to Mexico, including among others, General Bazaine. On 19 May 1863 this army finally captured Puebla, and the next month the French occupied Mexico City. That is when Austrian Duke Maximillian arrived to take his place as Emperor.
Juarez fled north and fought a mostly guerilla war against the French until he could rebuild his Army. The presence of French troops was able to create the illusion that the countryside had been pacified. Maximillian raised the Imperial Mexican Army to keep the peace. While some of the conservatives who had been ousted from power by Juarez supported the Empire, most Mexicans opposed the French invasion of their country.
In this war, there were three major armies. The first was the French Army. The second was the Republican Army, under Juarez. The third was the Imperial Mexican Army, under Maximillian. Initially, the Republicans tried to defeat the French and Imperial armies in traditional battles, but from 1863 to 1865, the Republicans fought mostly a guerilla war.
When the American Civil War ended in April 1865, American arms and ammunition began to flow to the Juaristas. Freshly equipped and newly organized, the Republicans again challenged the French and Imperial armies in open battles. While the Republican armies closer to the U.S. border tended to be better equipped than those closer to Mexico City, the Republicans were. persistent and indomitable, eventually winning a string of important battles.
Maximillian, responding to increasing pressures, issued the Black Decree in October 1865, ordering all Mexicans caught under arms shot as bandits. This had two major, terrible effects. First, it solidified Mexican opinion against the Empire. Second, it sealed the fate of any Imperial or French prisoners taken.
In May 1866, under pressure from the United States and French public opinion, Napoleon III ordered his troops out of Mexico. It took a year for General Bazaine to slowly withdraw his forces, and in March 1867, the last French troops departed. On 15 May 1867 Maximillian surrendered his 11,000-man army at Queretaro to 25,000 Republicans. He was tried and shot - another result of the Black Decree. In June the last Imperial troops surrendered Mexico City, and in July Juarez returned to the capital.
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© Copyright 1998 by Hal Thinglum
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