PREFACE - I am submitting as an article the following Graduate study Project I did for the Military History Department at The Ohio State University. I collected a team of ten undergraduate volunteers (five French and five Mamluke), three of whom had played a wargame before...All of whom are enthustastic wargamers now (what would you expect from a Military History undergraduate at OSUlI). I would recommend this format for gainers, students or not, at local universities and high schools to promote the hobby, and teach a few things more than Nintendo and Fantasy to those who aspire to learn. I made a video of the game (edited it with Computer Graphics and film clips) and called it ''MASTERPIECE WARGAMES". My thesis,"Assignment" and a sample of their "reports" follow.

Undergraduate Research Option

THESIS: An expanded understanding, and valuable experiential insight of, can be gained by contrasting Ottoman/Mamluk eastern armies with those of Napoleon through researching and recreating Napoleon's 1789 Battle of the Pyramids with an accurate, detailed Battle Simulation/Wargame.

PARTICIPATION: Each undergraduate participant will 'Role-Play' one of the key leaders of Napoleon's 1798 Conquest of Lower Egypt. The leaders, their specific mission and capabilities of the forces they commanded will be researched, as well as the historical analysis of the campaign and battle itself. Participants will attend a one hour 'explanation session' and play in a four to six hour professionally umpired) HISTORICAL MINIATURES WARGAME, sponsored the National Historical Miniatures Gaming Society.

MEHOD: Tactical Battle Analysis: By using a commercial wargame rules system (called "Napoleon's Battles"), 3,000 15mm Napoleonic minaitures (organized in the original order of battle, a terrain model of the battlefield, player roles for key leaders, pre-battle operation data, and a battle scenario. Wargame method will be covered in the explanation seminar'. Gaming mechanics will be kept Simple NO EXPERIENCE NECESSARY, just common sense, and an Understanding (from the class readings) of the conduct of Napoleon and Eastern/Ottoman Tactics.

REQUIREMENTS: Each participant to receive credit in History 625.01 in accordance with: (1) PreBattle Research of his/her Leader, Force commanded, and the campaign. (2) Attendance of 'explanation session.', (3) Participation in the wargame (3-6 hours). (4) Research Project Analysis Report (3-5 pages) submitted in lieu of Book review. Include role-player analysis of: Military Professionalism, tactics, operational strategy, technology, leadership, and combined arms warfare.

SUGGESTED REPORT FORMAT (may include some of those in a modified battle analysis format):

• Strategic and Operational Situation (may include Campaign Chronology - Chart)
• Comparison of Forces (may include Numerically Detailed Order of Battle - Chart)
• Leader bio, description (as much as is needed, about him or his typical role)
• An account of the Tactical Battle (may include Tactical Chronology - Chart)
• Outcome of the Battle (may include operational and Strategic
• Impact of the Battle.
• Analysis and Conclusions

HELPFUL HINTS (Questions to ask, before and after any battle..who knew?): Answers provided -

• What is my (and my opponents) mission and objectives? The French objective was to simply take the fort as quickly as possible to avoid thirst and exhaustion. The Ottoman objective was the reverse, to delay the French progression towards the fort.
• What Forces, types, technology, strength/numbers do I (and my opponent have? If the Ottomans could have incorporated the Ibrahim Bey forces of 100,000 Fellahins, they might have had a better chance. The French forces consisted of light and elite divisions and one Cavalry division. The Ottomans were comprised of several different types of troops: Janasaries, Greek and Albanian mercenaries, Mamluk cavalry, Fellahins, Arab/Bedouin raiders, and French trained Moslem Flotilla. Both sides were relatively equal in technology, many rifles and some artillery.
• What typical tactics to my own forces (and my opponents) usually employ? Desaix was probably the best of the French generals. He was highly trained and had a long military history.
• What experience, military professionalism, and ability does my leader-role have? Since the French are more disciplined, they can assume various formations to counterattack. The Ottomans are more like charge and move, charge and move. This rag-tag style can be attributed to their poor training and ease of being disordered/routed.
• What would I identify as key or decisive terrain? The key terrain was definitely the desert. This added to the French worries of exhaustion, thirst, and most importantly, a foreign atmosphere to fight in.
• What would I identify as my (and opponents) greatest weakness and strength? Their best assets would be their sheer numbers and ability to fight in hot, desert-like conditions. The Ottomans greatest weaknesses are lack of discipline and leadership.
• What is/was the tactical decisive point of the battle/campaign? When Desaix ditched his artillery and moved at a faster pace along the river to get to the wall. This move was important/decisive because once a French division created a breach, the morale of the Ottoman was ruined and they could sense the end of the battle.
• What makes this battle decisive? operationally/strategically?
• What lessons were learned (by me, my historical counterpart, his opponent)? The overall lesson learned was that an army of well disciplined soldiers is essential for victory, sheer numbers can not compete. Leadership also plays a key variable in the victory equation .

FRENCH ORDER OF BATTLE

Napoleon Bonaparte, Commander (25,000)

• 2 companies of Sappeurs (120 each)

1st Division General Dugua (5,100; 8 guns) Baggage Train

• 8# Foot Battery
• 25th Demi Brigade
• 75th Demi Brigade
• 2nd Legere
• Converged Grenadiers

2nd Division General Bon (5,100; 8 guns) Baggage Train

• 8# Foot Battery
• 4# Horse Battery
• 18th Demi Brigade
• 32nd Demi Brigade
• 4th Legere
• Converged Grenadiers

3rd Division General Reynier (3,400; 8 guns, Army supply train)

• Baggage Train
• 8# Foot Battery
• 4# Horse Battery
• 9th Demi Brigade
• 85th Demi Brigade
• Grenadier Battalion

4th Division General Desaix (5,500; 8 guns) Baggage Train

• 8# Foot Battery
• 4# Horse Battery
• 61st Demi Brigade
• 88th Demi Brigade
• 21st Legere
• Grenadier Battalion

5th Division General Vial (3,200; 12 guns) Baggage Train

• 4# Horse Battery
• 13th Demi Brigade
• 2nd Legere
• Grenadier Battalion

Cavalry Division General Dumas (1,600)

• 7th Hussars
• 14th Dragoons
• 15th and 20th Dragoons
• 3rd and 18th Dragoons

MANDUK/OTTOMAN ORDER OF BATTLE
Pasha Abu Bakr, OTTOMAN GOVERNOR

• Personal Body-Guard (1,100 Infantry)

Ibrahim Bey, Army of Cairo (100,000, 40 guns)

• 12# Foot Battery (X4)
• Janissary Corps (1,400)
• Fellahin Corps (94,000)
• Arab Cavalry/Camelry (2,000)
• Sipahi Cavalry (1,600)

Murad Bey, Manluk Egyptian Army (26,200)

• 12# Foot Battery (X4 permanent positions around Embebah)
• Mamluke Armored Cavalry Division (6,000)
• Sipahi Cavalry (1,000)
• Bedouin Cavalry/Camelry (3,000)
• Elite Division: Jannisary, Greek, Albanian (4,800)
• Fellahin 'Division' (7,000)

Ottoman Commanders for the Wargame:

• Pasha Abu Bakr - frustrated Ottoman Governor of Egypt
• Captain, Pasha Feht - French trained Moslem Flotilla and artillery commander
• Ibrahim Bey - 100,000 smelly Fellahin Infantry, 40 guns, 6,000 cavalry
• Murad Bey - 6,000 Armored Heavy Cavalry
• Shiek at Embabeh - 12,000 very smelly Fellahin infantry, 24 guns - under Murad Bey
• Shiek at Gizeh - 3,000 cut-throat Arab/Bedouin raiders cavalry/camelry

READING MATERIAL:
Chandler, D., CAMPAIGNS OF NAPOLEON (NY, 1966) pp. 205-250.
Chandler, D., NAPOLEON'S MARSHALS.
Rogers, H.C.B. Col. NAPOLEON'S ARMY (NY, 1982)
Detaille, Edward, L,ARMEE FRANCAIS (Paris, 1880)
Elting, J.R., SWORDS AROUND THE THRONE (NY, 1988)
Morier, J. MEMOIR OF A CAMPAIGN WITH THE OTTOMAN ARMY IN EGYPT(London, 1801)
Wise, Terence, ARTILLERY EQUIPMENT OF THE NAPOLEONIC WARS (Osprey, Lond, 1979)
NAPOLEON'S CAMPAIGN IN EGYPT (osprey, London, 1986)

FRENCH BATTLE LOG OF THE BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS
STARTING BATTLE FORMATIONS (From left of table to right) - Desaix. Vial, Dugua, Bon, and Murat all in column. Napoleon with Reynier behind in column waiting in reserve.

11:00 AM - French divisions move toward fortification at maximum movement (13"). Mamluk and Arab cavalry divisions move towards French at maximum movement rate.

11:30 AM - French forces form echelons to prevent rear flanking of faster Mamluk cavalry. Bon and Murat's divisions form squares to absorb possible Arab/Bedouin charge. French gunboat opens first fire. Mamluk cavalry confines charge to get the rear flank. Minimal French advancement towards fortification.

NOON - Rest of French divisions form squares to absorb Mamluk charge and aim cannons accordingly. First Mamluk casualties. Mamluk move to guard front of fortification and attempt to swing around French. Dugua absorbs Desaix's artillery to allow quick rear flanking prevention. Exchange of fire.

12:30 PM - Desaix moves into position to prevent flanking. Exchange of fire. Casualtiee to Vial but repels Mamuk charge; they become disordered and turned around. Heavy casualties suffered by Mamluks (approximately 600). Bon and Murat drift from other French divisions to keep Arab cavalry in the West.

1:00 PM - French continue advancement toward fort. Vial suffers additional casualties. Mamluks fall back towards side of fort. Bon and Murat routed 200 Arabs. French gunboat hit and loses gun. Town infantry (mercenaries) ascend from town.

1:30 PM - French move to fort. Vial fires and creates Mamluk casualties while Dugua misses. Mamluk cavalry continues retreat and Albanian and Greek mercenaries with Janasaries attack Vial in column form. No immediate casualties.

2:00 PM - Dugua and Napoleon exchange fire with Mamluks.Partial Mamluk cavalry routed. Advance on fort continued by Vial and Desaix while Bon and Murat still continue battles with Arabs in the distance.

2:30 PM - Desaix moves up along the river while Vial forms line to enter combat with mercenaries. Dugua in square to support Vial's right flank from cavalry charge. Vial disorders Jansaries. Murat and Bon receive Arab charge but Arabs are disordered and routed. Murat falls back because of fatigue. Mamluk cavalry still beside fort while elites continue combat. Vial enters square because of treat of Mamluk cavalry charge who are no longer disordered. Desaix wards off attack by Greek mercenaries by the Nile River.

3:00 PM - Desaix suffers casualties but turns back a cavalry charge. The French gunboat was sunk. Dugua and Mamuks battle. More elites from inside fortifications enter combat. Many Fellahin infantry heop keep Vial at bay away from city walls.

3:30 PM - French break squares and move to take fort. Dugua remains in square to protect rear flank of divisions taking the fort. Fort cannon are taken. Arabs move from distance towards fort to give reinforcements. Dugua becomes disordered. Shiek at Embabeh learns of bribery letters (From Napoleon: "'Greetings most honorable Murad Bey: I, Napoleon Bonaparte am prepared to offer you the following: A medal of honor and courage, twenty dancing girls to add to your harem, and the position of Sultan in exchange for the following: When the battle is joined, charge courageously into the French lines. We will be in line formation and will change into square formation moments before impact. Then wheel around and strike again. After these two strikes, fall back and take no momentous part in combat for the remainder of the day. This will offer you a chance to perform courageously on the field of combat this day while securing a place fo yourself forever. Think this offer through carefully and join with us! Remember to strike on turn one of combat, if you do not, we will take your reply as no). Fellahins routed and suffer heavy casualties.

4:00 PM - Desaix first over city wall. Suffers many casualties. Two brigades disordered and one routed. Desaix's life in jeopardy but survives. Greek and Albanian mercenaries defeated by Desaix and major Mamluk leader killed by Desaix. Vial continues to attack fort. Dugua watches his back. Murat still busy with some Arabs. Bon forms square to guard flank from charging Arabs and plugs the gap between columns and walls.

4:30 PM - French over city walls. Vial joins Desaix inside fort. Napoleon and Reynier's troops also move to walls. Dugua protectssupply wagon from Arab raiders.

5.00 PM - 5,000 Fellahins swim river. French progress through city. Napoleon causes panic by mass routing and defeats the last elite group (Janasaries). Mass casualties suffered by Mamluks creates the end of the battle. The Mamluk side experienced fifty percent casualties and the rest of the Namluk army disperses.

Total French Casualties: 3100.

SCENARIO DATA

1. Start 11AM; End 9PM
2. Victory Conditions

• A) French Marginal: Occupy Embebeh
• B) French Tactical: Break/rout 40% of Mamluks
• C) French Decisive: Both A and B
• D) Mamluke Marginal: Hold Embebeh till 2100
• E) Mamluke Tactical: Break/rout three French units
• F) Mamluke Decisive: Both D and E

3. Deployment

• A) All French north of French line
• B) All Mamluke cavalry south of Murad line
• C) All Ottoman infantry within 2,000 M. of Embebeh

• A) On a roll of "6" on a D6, Ibrahim Bey may start to send three units per turn across from Cairo unit = 1200 infantry or 600 cavalry or 12 guns).
• B) After 3PM, add one to die each turn.
• C) French gunboats may attempt to intercept (1XD6 per boat; 6=sunk).

5. Special Rules astions

• A) Mamluke heavy artillery can not move from prepared b
• B) Mamluke heavy cavalry will become impetuous and move to contact/charge on 50% roll if within 1,000 m. of French.
• C) Murad Bey is the onlyl Mamluke commander unless Ibraham Bey rolls to cross the Nile.
• D) All units must spend a minimum of one 1/2 hour at a water source(*) between 3PM and 6PM (* Water source: Embebeh; Nile, Cairo, Village).

The French operational goal was to capture the town of Embabeh. In the process we hoped to destroy the Ottoman military presence in Egypt, thereby permitting Napoleon to conquer the country. We had just completed a thirty mile trek across the desert and were in some disarray at the start of the battle. However, with our superior skill and European discipline, as well as over-whelming arrogance (the secret French weapon), we formed up in good order at the edge of the battlefield.

We geared our operational plan to our opponents. The Ottomans were not a homogeneous force. They had several different leaders, some of whom did not agree with each other. They had a huge mobility advantage in the form of 15,000 superb, but ill-disciplined cavalry. The masses of Fellahin infantry were known to be unsteady under fire, so we paid them little heed. We were concerned about the Ottoman artillery. We saw that the bulk of their forces, particularly the artillery, were on the wrong side of the Nile. We had a gunboat on the river, which we should have used to attack those crossing the river to reinforce Embabeh. Instead, we used it to attack the fort and it was promptly sunk by Ottoman shore batteries.

We deduced that our opponents would be mounting regular cavalry attacks. Accordingly, we tried to keep our infantry divisions close together since we had only 1600 light cavalry under Murat to deal with around 15,000 mounted enemy. It goes without saying that we would be moving much slower than the Ottomans. In attacking Embabeh, we tried to stay in the dead zones of the cannon fixed in that pleasant little village's walls. Our plan was to advance in echelon on Embebeh to prevent being flanked by the cavalry. We would form square as needed to repel charges and try to avoid the fire arcs of the Embabeh guns. Murat's cavalry would provide as much of a defensive screen as possible. We hoped to get the town before too many reinforcements could cross the Nile. I had the heaviest artillery to deal with along the walls of Embabeh. Desaix was to be the main exploitation force.

The wargame began on 10 February, 1996 when thousands of Frenchmen and Ottomans were represented in 15mm miniature in the University Hall. The French were arranged from left to right, all in column as follows: Desaix, Vial, Dugua, Bon and Murat. Napoleon and Reynier were behind in column to act as reserve and guard the baggage train (see map). We moved toward Embabeh in division square when the enemy cavalry was in range. The Mamluk and Arab cavarly moved toward us at top riding speed. We formed echelon to prevent being flanked on the right. Curates division took shelter inside Bones division square. Soon afterward (11:30-12:00) the rest of the French army formed rectangles and dealt with the Mamluk cavalry. Our artillery enabled us to drive them off. The Mamluks fell back to the walls of Embabeh in front of Vial's division to threaten a left flanking attack and defend the town.

At 12:30 the Mamluk in front of Embabeh charged my division. After heavy fighting in which my 12 pounders proved invaluable, we drove back the Mamluks, inflicting 600 casualties. At this time, Bon and Murat fell away from the main French body to prevent attacks from our right rear.

At 1:00 we continued to advance upon Embabeh. Again, Vial took more losses. The Mamluks retreated to the side of Embabeh and the Albanian and Greek mercenaries attacked out of the fort. At this time, the French gunboat was knocked out and Bon and Murat routed 2400 Arab cavalry. At 1:30 Vial and Dugua advanced toward the fort. Both Generals drove the Mamluks back. The Albanian and Greek mercenaries, as well as the Janisary infantry from the town hit Vial in column formation.

At 2:00 Dugua and Napoleon partially routed a Mamluk charge (again blessing the patron saint of cannon). Vial and Desaix pressed on to the fort. Bon and Murat were off providing flank and rear protection for those near the fort. At 2:30 Vial formed line to fight the Janisary and mercenary infantry. Dugua formed square to protect Vial's left flank from the Mamulk cavalry. Vial disordered the Janisaries and Desaix disordered the mercenaries.

Under the threat of a Mamluk charge, Vial formed square. This combination of threatening with cavalry to force your enemy to fore square and then attacking with infantry was a good use of combined arms.

At 3:00 the Mamluks did indeed charge Desaix who drove them off. The other Mamluks charged Dugua. Hordes of both elite and Fellahin infantry placed themselves between Vial and Desaix and Embabeh. At 3:30 Dugua stayed ins quare to protect the right flank from cavalry attack while Vial and Desaix engaged in a bloddy infantry battle in column formation before the walls of Embabeh. Meanwhile, Bon and Murate had become fatigued after driving off more Arab cavalry.

At 4:00, after much bloody combat, General Desaix went over the wall in a valiant fight in which the major Mamluk leader died. By 4:30 Vial's division had also hacked its way over the wall. During this assault, Dugua continued to steadily provide flank and rear security. Bon assisted Dugua in this task. Murat's weary light cavalry kept the Arabs from approaching the assault columns (via] and Desaix) from the rear.

At 4:30, the breach having been made, Reynier's fresh division, held in reserve, was sent over the wall to join Desaix and Vial in the town. Dugua moved to guard the rear of Reynier and the supply wagons at the rear of the assault columns.

By 5:00 the Ottomans had set up a formidable battery of cannon ferried from Cairo in Embabeh. The capture of the town looked to be very messy and by no means certain. The French were starting to become fatigued. Vial was starting to move his 12 pounders ove rthe wall when the last groups of Ottoman elites were routed, the Mamlukes by Bon and Dugua's cannons and the Janisaries by Reynier's fresh Grenadiers respectively. This caused the collapse of the Moslem army which dispersed. ottoman losses were on the order of 50% while the French lost 3100 or 12%.

The strategic impact of the Battle of University Hall enabled Napoleon to conquer Egypt ostensibly for the Directory in Paris. They key to the French victory was discipline and cannon. The unsteady discipline of the Ottoman cavalry allowed them to engage only in fairly straight forward attacks, which quickly fell apart in the face of steady squares and artillery. The Ottoman mercenaries and the Janisaries were skilled, but lacked the mobile artillery that let the French wreak such havoc. The Fellahin infantry were less than useful in this type of battle and had to be deployed inside the fort. From the beginning, French success was likely, assuming they kept tight, mutually supporting formations and employed their cannon properly. The lack of sufficient amounts of skilled enemy infantry and mobile cannon on the scene grealY helped the French since cavalry can not hold ground. This factor enabled the French to close relatively quickly with Embabeh.

That said, the battle was a near run thing toward the end. If the Mamluks had not routed, the French would have had to take Embabeh in the face of massive Ottoman artillery. Via's cannon were only starting to come over the wall and any other French cannon were far away. In addition, fatigue was starting to erode French performance.

The key terrain feature was Embabeh on which the battle hinged. Embabeh was the enemy center of gravity. The Nile River also provided good left flank securing for the French and slowed down Ottoman efforts to reinforce Embabeh. The decisive point of the battle was when the last of the Mamluks broke and the Ottoman army disintegrated. The elites were what held the Ottoman army together and with their defeat, what cohesiveness which existed, was destroyed. If this had not happened, the decisive point would have been either the French taking out the Ottoman cannon inside the fort or the Ottoman gunners flaying the French with canister. In either case, the fight for Embabeh, street by street, would not have been pleasant.

The French use of combined arms warfare was successful in terms of the infantry and artillery combination. At the walls of Embabeh with their elite infantry and Mamluk cavalry, the Ottomans used combined arms as best they could by forcing Vial to form square by threat of cavalry and then attacking with infantry.

When I started this project, I knew very little about Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. In the reading for this assignment and the actual wargame, I learned a great deal about the Napoleonic way of war and the actual campaign history. I am grateful to Captain Panzeri for arranging this project.

B) Written by James Tyson Mapes who played General Desaix

According to the history of the Battle of the Pyramids, the Ottomans simply stayed back towards the fortification allowing the French troops to advance. In our wargame session, the Ottomans took the opposite role of actual history and came forward to meet the French charge. This proved to be a problem for the French forces because Mamluk cavalry forced the French into slow moving square formations which defended against cavalry charges better than columns, the original starting formation for our French troops. The Mamluk cavalry attempted to circle around the left flank of the French, but I moved into position to prevent the rear flanking. At the same time, Murat and Bon formed squares in an attempt to rout the Arab/Bedouin charge. The use of Ottoman cavalry proved effective because it slowed the French progression towards the fortification. This extra time the French forces spent in the hot arid desert created a wave of exhaustion that would be beneficial to the Ottomans. This particular battle in front of the fort ensued until my forces finally took the wall closest to the Nile River. The key to French victory was obvious, capturing the fort. Once one division of French troops were over the wall, the rest of the French soon followed suit. Heavier casualties were suffered by the French in the wargame in comparison to the actual battle, but this was fortfeited by a quicker time of victory.

C) The Ottoman Report by B.J. Bale

I am Murad Bey, right Mamluk ruler of Egypt. In the past I have been forced to share rule over Cairo and central Egypt with the power hungry Ibrahim Bey. Ibrahim is a fool. He has no sense of military affairs. He abuses his station by using Cairo's resources for his own worthless ventures. He is responsible for the poor training and morale of the Fellahin against the Godless French infidels. If I had control of Cairo, I would put all effort and income into the army. This army would have easily defeated Napoleon. But, it was not to be. Please allow me to recall the day of the battle, so that my soul may be cleansed in the eyes of Allah, for surely he knows that the blame for the defeat does not rest on my shoulders.

By the time the French arrived near Embebah, the morning had turned to day. Their march across the desert had cost the French dearly. The Europeans have no sense of how to fight in the desert. I felt sure they would break from their rigid formations and run to the river before long. The glorious Mamluk army was ready to meet the invaders. Each man was dressed in his finest silks. Each carried a priceless jewel encrusted curved sword, a carbine, a pair of fine pistols, a lance, a mace, and rode a strong horse. The horses were a sight in their own right. Beautifully adorned in brightly colored blankets and barding. The mere sight of us would break the French will to fight.

The French had little cavalry of their own to fight us, so I knew we would have complete control of the battlefield. My plan was to pass between the river and the French left flank. I knew that they would be most likely to attack the north end of Embebah and I hoped to dissuade them from trying to assault the walls by placing my entire force behind the French formations. This would also serve to keep their soldiers from the valuable waters of the Nile.

The movement began well and it seemed that we would succeed in passing the French. Then my Mamluks became too anxious for French blood. As one the Mamluk army charged into the French. The devils would not be broken so easily after all. Each of my units was forced back, disordered. Napoleon has certainly made a pact with the Devil in exchange for his army. Whenever the French fired, hundreds of my men fell dead or dying. With the change to pass by the French gone, I ordered my troops closer to the fort to regroup. The stiff French formations made the job of my cavalry very difficult. It was decided that a group of infantry might be better able to fight them. The brave Janissary and Albanian units left the safety of the city walls and advanced to attack. They suffered heavily from French artillery fire and were unable to break the French, who had formed into line formation. Seeing this, I ordered an immediate charge on the French line, hoping to catch them out of their comfortable squares. The attempt failed as they easily reformed square and repulsed yet another advance. They were getting close to the walls by this time and it became necessary to move my forces to the west to gain more room to maneuver. Upon moving west, a small enemy cavalry force was spotted. Hungry for a fair fight, I ordered my Mamluks to charge. It ended in disaster as the French brought several cannon to bear on my units and killed a great number. With no hope of effecting the inhuman French hordes, my units began falling back. I had hoped to use them to attack the French after they had impaled themselves on the city walls. By now the French were so exhausted they could not possibly take the town. Ibrahim~s incompetent Fellihins had other ideas. They abandoned their posts and ran from the French. The battle was lost. Allah has abandoned us.

Imperial Palace explaining the loss of Cairo to the French. Murad Would certainly have wanted to attempt to spread the blame for the defeat in order that he might again come to power some day.

The Mamluks were proud warriors who fought exclusively on horseback. They each carried a small arsenal detailed in the letter. This amount of equipment made them poor combatants out of the saddle, they were just too heavy. The simulation illustrates the problems involved when outdated techniques of warfare are forced to fight the cutting edge. The Mamluk cavalry were completely ineffective against the well-trained FrencOh. There are two main reasons for this that I observed during the simulation. The first is the discipline of the French. The constant drill and linear tactics of the French proved mounted shock action to be losing it's strength on the battlefield. The decline of shock action was exaggerated, in the simulation, by the increased lethality of the French muskets and cannon. The French were able to turn back the Mamluk cavalry because they remained in a solid square when the cavalry charged. The Mamluks had never faced infantry so well disciplined and drilled enough to achieve this until Napoleon's invasion. The dense formation did not give way and the men did not flee in the face of the cavalry. Knowing that a horse will not run into something that it can not jump over or go around. it is clear that the French musket fire would have caused heavy casualties in the fighting.

The second problem the Mamluks had was their lack of good infantry. Infantry in square is ill suited to withstand a charge by infantry in line or column. The Mamluks had only a handful of troops able to stand toe to toe with the French. These were the Janissary, Greek and Albanians. Ideally the use of infantry and I cavalry can be very effective. We tried to make use of this principle by bringing the elite units out of the fort. This would force the French to either form line to fight the infantry, leaving I themselves vulnerable to a cavalry charge. Or they would have to I fight against the infantry while being at the disadvantage of being in square. This tactic failed due to the mobility of French cannon and the ability of French battalions to form emergency square quickly. The Janissary and Greeks took heavy casualties from the artillery before making contact and were forced to withdraw. The cavalry charged, but the French would always reform square.

The simulation was a good way of showing the need for all modern armies to adopt marching in step as part of the soldiers basic training. It illustrates the shrinking role of mounted troops opn the battlefield as fire power was quickly becoming more important than shock action. The battle showed that the massive hordes which had served the Islamic empires so well for centuries would no longer be adequate to face Europeans, who could engage and estroy many times their own number of improperly trained troops. This is the result of the military revolution that would bring Europe military dominance over the Middle East in the end of the 18th century and on into the 2Oth century.

Larger Map - very slow (128K)