Though Philip II had suffered some severe defeats, his power was by no means broken, and he left his son an empire magnificent in its extent. Its territory on the American continent alone equaled in area twice that of the inhabitable part of Europe.

Philip III 1598-1621

Philip III the son of Philip II by his fourth wife Anne of Austria, was born 1578, succeeded his father to the throne of Spain in 1598, and died 1621. He inherited all the bigotry and ambition of his father with none of his ability.

The Moors had been driven into rebellion by tyrannical edicts which they could not possibly obey, and now the final expulsion of all the race was ordered. They were given three days' time in which to comply, and any remaining after that limit were to be put to death together with any Christians who afforded them relief. Agriculture and industry by this act received blows from which they never recovered in Spain. Spain has never since brought agriculture to the high state in which the Moors left it.

The Spanish Moors Persecuted into Rebellion "The constancy with which the Moors adhered to the faith of their fathers gave great scandal to the old Christians, especially to the clergy. A commission was appointed to examine into the matter. Among its members we find the Duke of Alva; at its head, Espinoso, the favorite minister of Philip.

After due deliberation the junta came to the decision that the only remedy for the present evil was to lay the axe at the root of it, to cut off those associations which connected the Moors with their earlier history and which were so many obstacles in the way of their present conversion. They should be interdicted from speaking or writing Arabic, and were to use only Castilian. Their family names were to be exchanged for Spanish ones. All written instruments and legal documents were void unless written in Castilian. Three years' time was allowed to change the entire language of the people. They were required to change their national dress for that of the Spaniards; the women to go abroad with their faces unveiled, a scandalous thing among Mohammedans. Their weddings were to be conducted in public after Christian forms. These several provisions were to be enforced by penalties of the sternest kind.

The public crier from an elevated place read in the Arabic language the royal ordinance. Some of the weaker sort gave way to piteous and pained exclamations, wringing their hands in an agony of grief; others of sterner temper broke forth into menaces and fierce invections accompanied with the most fierce gesticulations; others listened with that dogged and determined air which showed that the mood was not less dangerous that it was silent. They had only to choose between implicit obedience and open rebellion. It was not strange that they chose the latter."

Netherlands

It was during Philip III's reign that Spain lost all claim to the richest of her provinces, the seven northern states of the Netherlands, the scene of so much bloodshed and the source of such a fatal drain on her treasury. These provinces had been recognized as independent during the reign of Philip II by all nations except Spain, and now, after about sixty years' war, Spain so far recognized them by the treaty of Antwerp as to conclude a ten years' truce.

The soil of the Netherlands is made up wholly of varying deposits from fresh and salt water as the battle between land and sea surged back ' and forth. Nearly all of the Netherlands to-day is too low for natural drainage, and a large part of it is from 16 to 18 feet below sea level. It is protected from the ocean by numerous embankments, called dikes, some of them 6o feet high. On the tops of the dikes run the roads and canals which empty into the rivers. Along the banks are numerous windmills, which pump the water from the ditches to the canals. Many of the canals are navigable.

The Netherlands, to which Charles V acceded, comprised the seventeen provinces made up of the four duchies of Brabant, Limbourg, Luxemburg and Guelderland, the seven counties of Artois, Nainault, Flanders, Namur, Zutphen, Holland, Zealand, the five lordships of Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssel and Groningen, and the margraviate of Antwerp. The four provinces on the French border, where French was spoken, were called Walloon. They were merely a loose confederation without any supreme authority. Each province was independent, governed by its own laws and constitution.

It was during the time of Philip II that the Seven Northern Provinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelderland, Overyssel, Groningen and Friesland, revolted, formed a, republic, and chose William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, as their leader, with the title of stadtholder.

It was during the reign of Philip III that the famous Thirty Years' War broke out. It began May, 1618, by the Protestant nobles of Bohemia (then a province of Germany, now a part of Austria) rebelling against Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, who was elected Emperor of Germany 16ig. The Netherlands was now the scene of a bitter quarrel between the Lutherans under John of Barneveldt and the Calvinists, under Maurice, and the ten years' truce expiring, the time seemed ripe to Philip when he could take advantage of this and regain what Spain had ever refused to acknowledge as wholly lost. The temper of his people also compelled him to take the part of Catholicism against the revolting Protestants.

"The time had come for securing her road to the Netherlands, as well as for taking her old stand as the champion of Catholicism. Spinola, the Spanish general in the low countries, was ordered to march to the aid of the Emperor, and the famous Spanish battalions were soon moving up the Rhine. Their march turned the local struggle in Bohemia into a European war." [Green's "History of the English People." ]

Philip died about 1621, before the whole effect of his joining with the Emperor could be felt.

"The affairs of Spain were in a deplorable condition, with seventy per cent. of her domestic trade and ninety per cent. of her foreign trade in the hands of aliens. Philip III was insane enough to close Spanish harbors and deliberately put an end to commerce, thus completing the ruin which his father had failed to effect.

More gold and silver had been coming into Spain in one generation than had been accumulated in all the previous ages of history, and yet the country became burdened with debt." [Yeates' "Commerce."]

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with this Period

1599. Oliver Cromwell born. (d. 1658.)
1600. Publication of Shakespeare's "Henry IV;" "Henry V;" "Much Ado About Nothing;" "Merchant of Venice," and "Midsummer Night's Dream." Bruno burned at the stake for having written heretical books.
1603. Death of Elizabeth, last of the Tudors. Accession of James VI of Scotland, James I. of England, the first of the Stuart kings. The French found colonies in Nova Scotia.
1605. Conspiracy of Catesby and Guido Fawkes to blow up the English parliament, known as "The Gunpowder Plot."
1607. The English found the first settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. Milton born. (d. 1674.)
1609. Discovery of the Hudson river by Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch. Publication of the Catholic Douay Bible. Final expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Galileo invents the telescope and discovers Jupiter's moons, thus proving the Copernican theory.
1610. Henry of Navarre', king of France, assassinated by Ravaillac. Louis XIII accedes under the regency of Marie de Medici.
1611. Montreal founded by Champlain. Charles IX of Sweden, dies. Gustavus Adolphus succeeds to the throne. Publication of King James' Bible (Authorized version). Birth of Turenne, one of the ablest marshals of France. (d. 1675)
1613. English destroy French colony at Port Royal in Nova Scotia. Michael Romanoff accedes to the Russian throne, the first of the reigning dynasty.
1614. The last States General (national convention) of France held prior to the Revolution. Raleigh's "History of the World" published.
1615. The first known weekly newspaper regularly published at Frankfort-on-the-Main.
1616. War begun between Sweden and Poland. Cervantes, Spanish dramatist and author of "Don Quixote" dies.

1618. The Protestants of Bohemia (then a province of Germany, now a province of Austria-Hungary), revolt and begin the Thirty Years' War. As a result, eventually, all the Protestant and Catholic powers of Europe were arrayed against each other. "This, which had been a civil war at the first, did not continue such for long, or rather, it united all the dreadfulness of a civil war and a foreign. It was not long before the hosts which trampled the German soil had in large part ceased to be German, every region of Europe sending its children, and, as it would seem, of those whom it must have been gladdest to be rid of."

"The bitterest irony of all was that this war, which claimed at the outset to be waged for the highest religious objects, for the glory of God, and for the highest interests of His church, should be signalized by a more shameless treading under foot of all laws, human and divine, disgraced by worse and wickeder outrages against God, and against man, the image of God, than probably any war which modern Christendom has seen." [R. C. Trench. "Gustavus Adolphus in Germany."]

Three-quarters of the population of many of the German states were killed or driven abroad, and in more than a century certain provinces had not regained their former prosperity. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, during his life, was the chief leader of the Protestant officers. Tilly and Wallenstein were the best leaders of the Imperial officers. Wallenstein was an able general, but utterly unscrupulous, and was plotting the overthrow of his own party when assassinated.

1619. Negro slavery introduced into Virginia.

1620.Puritans land at Plymouth. Bacon's "Novum Organum" published

1621. First Thanksgiving Day observed in New England.

Philip IV: 1621-1665

Son of Philip III and Margaret of Austria, born 1605 married Isabella of France 1615, succeeded to the throne on the death of his father in 1621.

The ten years' truce with the Seven Northern Provinces of the Netherlands having now expired, and the Lutherans and Calvinists being engaged in a quarrel there, Philip thought this a good opportunity to recover his lost dominion. At first he met with some success in his land operations, but the Dutch had been building up a steady trade with the East Indies and Brazil, and, since the defeat of the Spanish Armada, had risen to be the most powerful nation on the sea, and in 1628 captured his "silver fleet" with about $5,000,000 in pure silver.

Under Admiral Van Tromp they won two crushing naval victories in 1639, and Spain, thoroughly exhausted, made her final peace and recognized their independence in 1648, eighty years after William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, had issued his call to the Seven Northern Provinces to take up arms in defense of their liberties, Richelieu, that great statesman of France, coming into power in 1624, brought one of the greatest intellects of any age to bear against them. The Spanish diplomatists were no match for the astute Frenchman, and the French under "The Great Conde" almost totally destroyed their army at Rocroi in 1643, and shattered the reputation of the "Terrible Spanish Infantry." The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 put an end to the Thirty Years' War, left Spain without an ally, and France free to give her undivided attention.

Mazarin, the minister of France who succeeded upon the death of Richelieu in 1642, made peace with Cromwell, and, by-agreeing to turn over Dunkirk to him, secured 5,000 "Ironsides" who were perhaps the best soldiers of Europe, and with this assistance, Turenne, the great French general, was irresistible.

Portugal revolted in 1640 and ever after maintained her independence.

The treaty of the Pyrenees was concluded between France and Spain, 1659, at the expense of considerable territory to Spain, and the daughter of the Spanish king married Louis XIV of France.

From that moment, indeed, Spain sank into a strange decrepitude. Robbed of the chief source of her wealth by the independence of Holland, weakened at home by the revolt of Portugal, her infantry annihilated by Conde in his victory of Rocroi, her fleet ruined by the Dutch, her best blood drained away to the Indies, the energies of her people destroyed by the suppression of all liberty, civil or religious, her intellectual life crippled by the expulsion of the Moors, by financial oppression and by the folly of her colony system, the kingdom which under Philip II had aimed at the empire of the world lay helpless and exhausted under Philip IV." [Green's " History of the English People."]

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with this Period

1622."The Weekly Newes," first newspaper in England regularly published. Moliere, author, born. (d. 16 7 3 -)

1623. "The First Folio" edition of Shakespeare's plays published.

1624England, Holland and Denmark combine with the Protestants of Germany. George Fox, founder of Quakerism, born. (d. 1690.) Richelieu's mininistry (1624-1642) begins. He crushes the power of the nobles and the Huguenots, increases the power of the throne, aids the Protestant German princes in the Thirty Years' War to defeat Austria, the ancient rival of France. "Of the Cardinal there remains nothing but the memory of his power and the (Teat services he rendered his country. He had no conception of that noblest ambition, governing a free country, but he was one of the greatest, the most effective, and the boldest, as well as the most prudent servant France ever had."

1625. James I dies. Charles I., his son, accedes to the throne. Trouble between the king and Parliament now begins. Wallenstein and his army now employed against the Protestants. French Huguenots revolt.

1627.England assists the Huguenots in their revolt. Richelieu besieges Rochelle. Bossuet, great pulpit orator, born. (d. 1704.)

1628.Duke of Buckingham assassinated. Harvey publishes his "Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood." Bunyan, author of " Pilgrim's Progress, born. (d. 1688.)

1629. Charles I dissolves Parliament and arrests the speaker

1630. "Day of the Dupes," when Richelieu wins over his opponents. Wallenstein dismissed from command of Imperial forces in Thirty Years' War.

1631. Tilly captures Madgeburg and is defeated at Leipzig by Gustavus Adolphus. Dryden born. (d. 1700) Publication of the first weekly newspaper in France.

1632. Battle of Lech. Tilly defeated and killed in battle with Gustavus Adolphus. Wallenstein recalled to command forces of the League. Battle of Lutzen. Gustavus Adolphus killed, but Protestants are victorious.

1634. Assassination of Wallenstein. Sweden defeated at Nordenlingen by the League. Levy of "shipmoney" in England. Milton's "Comus" acted.

1636. Harvard College founded. Roger Williams banished and founds Providence.

1640. Portugal regains her independence. Peruvian bark introduced into use in Europe. Dissolution of "Long Parliament."

1642. Beginning of England's Civil War (1642-1646.) Battle of Edgehill. Richelieu dies. Sir Isaac Newton born. (d. 1727.)

1643. Louis XIII dies. Succeeded by Anne of Austria as regent for Louis XIV. Accession of the Mazarin ministry. Conde (the Great) defeats the Spanish at the battle of Rocroi.

1645. Cromwell defeats the Royalists at Naseby.

1646. Charles surrenders to the Scottish army.

1648.Cromwell wins the battle of Preston. Termination of Thirty Years' War. Peace of Westphalia. Alsace ceded to France. Separation of Switzerland from the empire. Spain acknowledges the independence of the United Provinces. Election of John Casimir, king of Poland.

1649.Charles I executed. The Commonwealth established. French war of the Fronde ends.

1650. Charles II invades Scotland. Defeated at battle of Dunbar by Cromwell. Publication of Baxter's "Saints' Everlasting Rest." Publication of Jeremy Taylor's "Holy Living." Marlborough born. (d. 1722.)

1651. Charles II invades England with a Scotch army. Cromwell defeats him at battle of Worcester.

1652. Conde the Great (born 1621, died 1681), one of France's ablest generals of any age, and victor of Rocroi, goes over to Spain. End of the war of the Fronde. Naval war between English and Dutch. At the close of the year Van Tromp, the Dutch admiral, sails the channel with a broom at his mast-head as a signal of his triumph. Dutch make their first settlement at the Cape of Good Hope.

1653. Cromwell dissolves the "Rump Parliament," and the Protectorate established. Publication of Isaac Walton's "Complete Angler." Mazarin returns to power in France.

1655. Alliance of England and Franc against Spain. English capture Jamaica.

1658.Dunkirk captured from the Spaniards and given up by the French to England. Cromwell is succeeded by his son Richard. Seizure of the Mogul throne of India.

1659. Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. Louis XIV marries the Spanish infanta.

1660.English army commanded by General Monk declares for. Charles II and seats him on the English throne. War between Austria and Turkey.

1662. Persecution of the Scottish Covenanters. Charles II sells Dunkirk to the French.

1665. The "Five Mile Act" enforced against nonconformists. London visited by the plague. War between English and the Dutch. English fleet under the Duke of York and Prince Rupert won a partial victory over the Dutch under Opdan and Van Tromp.

Charles II: 1665-1700

Son of Philip IV and Maria Anna of Austria. He was but four years old at the death of his father, and the government was administered by his mother, as regent, until 1680, when he succeeded to the throne. He was the last of the Spanish House of Hapsburg, feeble in body, and even more poorly equipped in intellect. Under him Spain suffered great loss of territory, Louis XIV of France laying claim to part of the Spanish Netherlands in behalf of his wife and making good the claim with an army Of 50,000 men under the great marshal Turenne.

The population in Spain had shrunken from 40 million under the most prosperous period of the Moors until now it contained no more than 6,000,000 people, and the finances were exhausted.

Charles II had no male heir, and the question of succession to the throne was absorbing the attention of all the ambitious rulers of Europe. The problem "balance of power," of which we hear so much nowadays, was then a prominent one, and William III of England was its strongest advocate.

The right of succession was a most complicated one. By law and tradition, on the extinction of a male line the crown should have passed to the nearest female or her heir. Charles had two sisters; the elder, Maria Theresa, was the wife of Louis XIV, but she had renounced her claim to the throne. In consideration of this it had been agreed that she should be paid a dowry, but as the dowry had never been paid her husband repudiated the renunciation. The other sister, Margaret, had made no renunciation, but she was dead, and had left only a daughter as heir, Maria, who was the wife of the elector of Bavaria.

When Charles I resigned his imperial possessions to his brother Ferdinand it was agreed in a family compact that if either line became extinct the other should accede to its territorial possessions, and the Austrian branch of that House now prepared to put forward its claims.

As the end of the wretched king drew near, plots and counterplots among the sovereigns of the powers for the partition of his territory were made. He died in 1700, leaving the crown by will to Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV of France, on the condition that the prince should renounce all claim to the throne of France. Spanish pride, even in death, would not allow him to consider for a moment the partition of his kingdom or the contingency of its becoming but a province of a more powerful empire.

His reign had been one of almost uninterrupted disaster, and the unfortunate and once powerful kingdom was on the very verge of a great collapse. It now sank to the lowest depth of wretchedness, and from such a condition has never fully recovered, but "so vast was the extent of its empire, so enormous the resource which remained to it, that under a vigorous ruler men believed its old power would at once return. To add such a dominion as this to the dominion either of Louis or of the emperor would be to undo at a blow the work of European independence which William had wrought." [Green's " History of the English People."]

"The news of the secret treaties of partition between France and Germany stirred the Spaniards to deep anger. They cared little whether a French or an Austrian prince sat on the throne of Charles II, but their pride revolted against the dismemberment of the monarchy by the loss of its Italian dependencies. The nobles dreaded the loss of their vast estates in Italy and of the lucrative posts they held as governors there. Even the dying king shared the anger of his subjects." [Green]

It was evident that upon the death of Charles all Europe was likely to be plunged into war.

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with this Period

1666. The great fire in London. Two tremendous naval battles between Dutch and English. Four days' naval fight between English fleet under General Monk and Prince Rupert and Dutch fleet under De Ruyter and Van Tromp, with victory for the Dutch (June). Second engagement in July, with victory for the English.

1667.The victorious Dutch fleet sails up the Thames. Publication of Milton's "Paradise Lost."

1668. Alliance of England, Holland and Sweden against France. John Casimir, king of Poland, abdicates.

1670. In consideration of receiving an annual subsidy from the French king, Charles II makes a treaty with Louis XIV of France, betrays his alliance and agrees to profess himself a Catholic.

1672. Alliance of England and France against the Dutch. Prince of Orange recalled to power in Holland. Peter the Great, czar of Russia, born. (d. 1725.)

1674. Peace declared between English and the Dutch in New Netherlands (New York), which is ceded to the English. John Zobieski elected king of Poland. Isaac Watts born. (d. 1748.)

1678. Popish plot in England, Titus Oakes pretended informer. Publication of Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress."

1682. La Salle explores the whole length of the Mississippi River. Peter the Great accedes to throne of Russia.

1683. Turks invade Hungary and Austria and besiege Vienna, which is relieved by Sobieski, king of Poland. Philadelphia founded by William Penn.

1685. Death of Charles II. Accessior~ of his brother, James II. Rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth; defeated at Sedgemoor. The "Bloody Assizes" of Judge Jeffreys. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV of France. Streets of London first lighted.

1687. Publication of Newton's "Principia."

1688. Flight of James II. Arrival in England of Prince of Orange.

1689. Crown settled on William and Mary. James II arrives in Ireland, and war begins there.

1690. First congress of American colonies called to unite them for mutual protection against the savages. England, Holland, Spain, Savoy and emperor of Germany allied against Louis XIV. of France. French fleet defeats combined English and Dutch fleet off Beachy Head. Battle of Boyne in Ireland, and flight of James II. Issue of Locke's "Essay Concerning Human Understanding."

1692. Salem witchcraft in Massachusetts. Massacre of Glencoe in Scotland. France defeated in naval battle of La Hogue by English and Dutch fleets, and invasion of England prevented.

1693. William and Mary College founded in Virginia.

1694. The Bank of England founded. Voltaire born. (d. 1778.)

1696. Sobieski, king of Poland, dies, and crown is sold to Frederick Augustus, elector of Saxony.

1697. Peace of Ryswick. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Zenta. Charles XII. (The Madman of the North) accedes to the throne of Sweden. Peter the Great studies ship-building in Holland disguised as a common workman.

1699. Peace of Carlowitz between Turkey, Russia, Poland, Venice and the emperor, and the sultan loses nearlv half of his European dominions.

1700. Charles XII of Sweden begins his campaign against the Danes and Russians.

Philip V: 1700-1746

Philip of Anjou, second son of Louis the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. (Le Grand) of France.

The Spanish House of Hapsburg ended in 1700 with the death of Charles II, and the wars of the Spanish Succession now took place.

With Philip V began the line of Spanish Bourbon kings, who have held it, with two interruptions, down to the present.

On the death of Charles II, the king of France acted with his characteristic energy. "Louis well knew that a general European war would follow if he accepted for his house the crown thus bequeathed. But be had been preparing for this crisis throughout his reign. He sent his grandson into Spain as King Philip V, of that country, addressing to him on his departure the memorable words, 'There are no longer any Pyrenees.'" [Dyer's "History of Modern Europe."]

"The empire which now received the grandson of Louis as its king, comprised, besides Spain itself, the strongest part of the Netherlands, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, the principality of Milan and other possessions in Italy, the Philippines in Asia, and in the new world, besides California and Florida, the greater part of Central and South America.

Philip was well received in Madrid, where he was crowned as King Philip V. in the beginning of 1701. The distant portions of his empire sent him their adhesion, and the House of Bourbon, either by its French or Spanish troops, now had occupation both of the kingdom of Francis I (of France) and of the fairest and amplest portions of the empire of the great rival of Francis, Charles V (Charles I of Spain).

"Loud was the wrath of Austria, whose princes were the rival claimants of the Bourbons, for the empire of Spain. Deep was the indignation of William III of England, which, though not so loud, was far more energetic. By his exertions a league against the House of Bourbon was formed between England, Holland and the Austrian empire, which was subsequently joined by the king of Portugal and Prussia (Prussia was recognized as an independent kingdom in 1701), the duke of Savoy and by Denmark. Indeed, the alarm throughout Europe was now general and urgent. It was evident that Louis aimed at consolidating France and the Spanish dominions into one preponderating empire.

Whether the formal union of the two crowns was likely to take place speedily or not, it was evident that the resources of the whole Spanish monarchy were now virtually at the French king's disposal. Great peril seemed to menace the Empire, England, Holland, and the other independent powers. 'Spain had threatened the liberties of Europe in the end of the 16th century; France had all but overthrown them in the close of the 17th. How then could they make head against both, united under such a monarch as Louis XIV? [Dyer's "History of Modern Europe."]

Revolts speedily broke out in Italy, and in 1702 a combined Dutch and English force landed near Cadiz and began an attack on that town. The death of William III (1702) deprived the League of the services of its greatest leader. Scarcely had the combined forces landed, when quarrels broke out among the leaders, as to precedence; and after a few ineffectual attempts the expedition was abandoned, but on the way home they found the Spanish treasure fleet at Vigo Bay, and captured it after a brilliant attack and a gallant defense.

Some of the Spanish officers of Charles II were not well satisfied with the Bourbon king, and the Admiral of Castile, offended by the loss of some office, went over to Portugal and used his influence to induce that country to join the League. This they did in 1703, and their action gave the League a valuable base of operation.

All the contestants to the throne in September, 1703, united on Charles, Archduke of Austria, son of the Emperor of Germany, and proclaimed him King of Spain under the title of Charles III. In March, 1704, he landed in Portugal with an English and Dutch army, intending to invade Spain from that side, but met with no success. An English fleet made an attack on Barcelona, but were beaten off. On their return they made up for their failure by capturing Gibraltar.

Gibraltar. (Arabic, Jabel-Tarik, i. e., Rock of Tarik.)

"The importance of this fortress, the key to the Mediterranean, was not then sufficiently esteemed, and its garrison had been neglected by the Spanish government. A party of English sailors, taking advantage of a " Saint's Day," in which the eastern portion of the fortress had been left unguarded, scaled the almost inaccessible precipice, while at the same time another party stormed the South Mole Head. The capture of this important place was the work of a few hours, and Rooke (British Admiral) took possession of it in the name of the king, of England." [Dyer's " History of Modern Europe."]

Gibraltar

This celebrated fortress has remained in the hands of the British since 1704, although frequently besieged. It sustained under General Elliott a siege of three years by the combined French and Spanish forces, comprising 40,000 soldiers, 47 first-class battleships, besides numerous inferior ships and floating batteries.

It is interesting to note that some of these floating batteries had walls seven feet in thickness, the sloping sides of which were covered with iron.

The British forces consisted of about 7,000 soldiers, under the command of General Elliott. It was he who said: "If you want the keys of Gibraltar come and take them."

On the 13th Of September, 1781, the allied forces rallied for the final attack; 170 cannon opened on the works, and 40,000 soldiers stood ready to make the assault whenever the English batteries were silenced. The floating batteries were finally set on fire by an allday's rain of red-hot cannon balls, and the allied forces compelled to withdraw, with a loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, while the loss of the garrison was only 84. A storm followed and scattered the allied fleet, and before they could resume, the plucky Lord Howe, with an English fleet, successfully landed supplies for the garrison and sailed away in safety.

The rock in its highest point is about 1,400 feet above the sea, and the part facing the north is almost perpendicular, while the eastern side is broken into numerous precipices. The western side is not so steep, and between the foot of the rock and the sea is comparatively level, and on this portion the town is built. It is connected with the mainland by a low, sandy isthmus, about one and one-half miles long and three-quarters of a mile wide, which is known as the neutral ground.

Enormous sums of money and immense labor have been expended in making this fortress impregnable. It is honeycombed by vast galleries two or three miles in length running through the solid rock, wide enough for ammunition wagons and connecting one point with another. Along the galleries, facing the neutral gound and parts most likely to be attacked, there are frequent port-holes mounting the most formidable product of modern gun- makers. The rock has also the ordinary defenses of a regularly fortified place.

Gibraltar has to depend upon the rainy season for its water supply, and the roof of each house is so constructed as to carry the water to a tank, where it is held in reserve.

Allied Invasion

In 1706 the English sent a formidable expedition under the command of the Earl of Peterborough, which, co-operating with Archduke Charles, met with excellent success on the eastern coast of Spain. Another allied army, profiting by treachery within the Spanish lines, captured Cartegena, and with it the best arsenal and about all the ships at the command of Spain. They soon overran half of the peninsula, captured Madrid, and within that imperial city proclaimed the archduke king of Spain.

Difficulty of Conquering Spain

"It seemed that the struggle had terminated in favor of the archduke, and that nothing remained for Philip but prompt flight into the dominion of his grandfather. So judged those who were ignorant of the character and habits of the Spanish people. There is no country in Europe which is so easy to overrun as Spain; there is no country in Europe which is so difficult to conquer.

Nothing can be more contemptible than the regular military resistance which Spain offers to an invader; nothing more formidable than the energy which she puts forth when her regular military resistance has been beaten down. Her armies have long borne too much resemblance to mobs; but her mobs have had, in an unusual degree, the spirit of armies. Every peasant procured a fire-lock or a pike; the allies were masters of the ground on which they trod. No soldier could wander a hundred yards from the main body of the invading army without imminent risk of being poinarded. The country through which the conquerers had passed to Madrid, and which, as they thought, had been subdued, was all in arms behind them." [Macaulay.]

The allies quarreled among themselves, and in the end were forced to retreat with immense losses in killed and wounded and upwards of 10 thousand prisoners.

The following year, 1707, they again advanced, and a fierce battle was fought at Almanza. The unsettled condition of the times is well illustrated by the commanders of the opposing forces. The allies were commanded by Ruvigni, Earl of Galway (a French refugee), and the Franco-Spanish by the Duke of Berwick, natural son of James II, former king of England.

A regiment of French Huguenot, refugees under the celebrated Jean Cavalier, found themselves opposed by a regular French regiment on the side of the king of Spain, and the two corps almost annihilated each other. The battle was decided by the superiority of the cavalry, and the English, Dutch and Portuguese infantry were cut to pieces.

The allies lost about 5,000 killed and 10,000 prisoners, and this victory for the French served in a measure to wipe out the stain of their defeat at Blenheim; however, the loss of the Spanish treasure fleet, which was captured by the English, left Charles in very straitened financial circumstances.

The allies rallied and again invaded the peninsula, and took possession of Madrid, but a second time the Castilians rose in support of their king, and under skillful French generals forced them to retreat with a loss of thousands killed and wounded and as many more prisoners.

But in the meantime Louis XIV had suffered staggering reverses in Germany and the Netherlands.

Blenheim

A little town in the southern part of Germany, with less than a thousand population, has given its name to one of the great decisive battles of the world. It was here that in 1704 the allied forces, under Prince Eugene of Savoy and Marlborough of England, won a brilliant victory over the veteran troops of Louis XIV. under Marshal Tallard and the Bavarians under the elector of Bavaria.

In one respect the struggle stands almost unrivaled, for the whole of the Teutonic race was represented in the strange medley of Englishmen, Dutchmen, Hanoverians, Danes, Wurtemburgers and Austrians who followed Marlborough and Eugene. The French and Bavarians, who numbered, like their opponents, something like 50,000, lay behind a little stream which ran through swampy ground to the Danube. Their posit'oi- was a strong one, for its front was covered by the swamp, its right by the Danube, its left by a hill country in which the Danube rose, and Tallard had not only strongly entrenched himself but was far superior to his rivals in artillery.

"Though the allies were in motion at sunrise on the 13th of August, it was not until mid-day that Eugene, who commanded on the right, succeeded in crossing the stream. The English at once forded it on the left and attacked Blenheim, in which the bulk of the French infantry were entrenched; but after a fierce struggle the attack was repulsed, while as gallant a resistance at the other end held Eugene in check. Marlborough now chose the center, where the French believed themselves unassailable, and by making an artificial road across the morass which covered it, threw his 8,000 horsemen on the mass of the French cavalry, and two desperate charges, which the duke headed in person, decided the day." [Green's " History of the English People."]

Of the defeated army, 12,000 were slain and 14,000 were captured. The prestige which one hundred victories had given the French soldiery was lost and passed to the allies, and "Marlborough" became a name of fear to every child in France.

The Treaty of Utrecht 1713

The contestants were exhausted, and were all willing to agree to a peace. By the death of Emperor Joseph in 1711 the Archduke Charles succeeded to the Imperial crown, and if he could have added to this the Spanish possessions it would have rendered him as dangerous to the peace of Europe as was Louis XIV. Political jealousies had arisen. Marlborough, charged with converting to his own use money intended to supply his army, was pronounced guilty by the House of Commons and the allies deprived of their ablest leader.

It was agreed by Treaty of Utrecht that Philip should have Spain and the Indies, while Naples, Sardinia, Milan and the Spanish Netherlands should go to the emperor. Sicily was given to the Duke of Savoy, and styled a kingdom. England secured Gibraltar, Minorca, Newfoundland, Hudson Bay and Nova Scotia. France was forced to recognize the right of Anne to the English crown and to expel the Pretender and his son, Charles Edward, while Philip renounced all right to succession to the throne of France.

On the death of Louis XIV, in 1715, Philip, unmindful of his solemn pledges in the Treaty of Utrecht, aspired to the French crown, and made war against France; but other nations interfered and compelled him to respect the agreement of the Quadruple Alliance.

Spain in 1733 played a minor part in the war of the succession to the Polish throne, and a little later quarreled with England over the latter's right to trade with Spanish colonies in America granted by the Treaty of Utrecht, but these affairs were not serious.

Jenkins' Ear

In 1739 war broke out with Spain over "Jenkins' Ear." As the story goes, Captain Jenkins, of the ship Rebecca, of London, sailed from Jamaica and was hanging about the ports of Florida, with which the English were not allowed to trade. He claimed to have been boarded by the Spanish coast guard, who tried to find proof that he was smuggling. Angered by their failure, they put a noose about his neck and hung him until he was choked into insensibility, lowering him just in time to save his life, and further abusing him by cutting off one of his cars and telling him to take it to his king.

The House of Commons took up the case, and Jenkins, when asked how he felt while thus abused, said, "I recommended my soul to God and my cause to my country." The answer was made a political war cry, and touched a chord of popular sympathy. However, it is by no means certain that Jenkins lost his ear in Florida.

In 1740, when the war of the Austrian succession broke out, Spain was one of the nations who repudiated its solemn treaty recognizing the rights of Maria Theresa. England alone of all the signatories to that compact was faithful. The Spanish forces gained some successes, and for a time it looked as though they might recover their possessions in Italy, but Europe was tired of fighting, and one by one the enemies of the heroic Austrian empress made peace with her and withdrew from the struggle, Philip V dying in 1746 of apoplexy before it was over.

In spite of the disturbed character of his reign his country showed marked improvement. He was earnestly desirous of seeing it prosperous and happy, and had called to his cabinet able men and those who had its welfare at heart.

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with this Reign

1701. James II. of England dies in exile. Yale College founded. Philip of Anjou becomes Philip V. of Spain and first of the Bourbon kings. Act of Settlement, passed by English Parliament, secures the right of succession to the heirs, being Protestant, of Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I.

1702. William III, king of England and stadtholder of Holland, dies. Anne, daughter of James II, accedes to English throne. The War of the Spanish Succession begins. First daily newspaper, "The Courant," published in England.

1704. Battle of Blenheim. Capture of Gibraltar. First newspaper in United States, published in Boston. Charles XII of Sweden completes conquest of Poland.

1706. Marlborough defeats the French under Villeroy at Ramilles.

1707. The kingdoms of England and Scotland are united under the name of Great Britain. Charles XII of Sweden conquers Saxony.

1709. Charles XII defeated at Pultowa by the Russians, and escapes into Turkey. Dr. Samuel Johnson born. (d. 1784.)

1712. Marlborough dismissed from command for embezzlement of funds. Frederick the Great born. (d. 1789) Rosseau born. (d. 1778)

1713. Peace of Utrecht ends the War of the Spanish Succession.

1714. Queen Anne, last of the house of Stuart, dies, and is succeeded by George I. of the house of Brunswick (or Hanover).

1715. Jacobite rebellion in England. Louis XIV dies. "Gil Blas" and Pope's "Iliad" published.

1718. St. Petersburg made capital of Russia. Charles XII killed at siege of Fredrikshall. Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI. names his daughter Maria Theresa as heir to his Austrian possessions.

1721. Rise of Walpole to power in the British Government Inoculation against small-pox introduced into England by Lady Montague.

1725. Death of Peter the Great. Accession of his empress, Catharine I. Birth of Clive. (d. 1774.) Spain, by treaty, guarantees rights of Maria Theresa.

1726. Russia, by treaty, guarantees rights of Maria Theresa. Swift's " Gulliver's Travels " published.

1727. Death of George I of England. Accession of George II. Hostilities between England and Spain without declaration of war.

1728. Prussia, by treaty, guarantees the rights of Maria Theresa. Goldsmith born. (d. 1774.)

1730. Baltimore founded. Liverpool and Manchester Railroad in England opened. Edward Burke born. (d. 1797.)

1731. England and Holland, by treaty, guarantee the rights of Maria Theresa.

1732. George II grants Georgia to General Oglethorpe. Franklin founds first subscription library in the United States at Philadelphia. Pope's "Essay on Man " published. Washington born. (d. 1799.) Haydn born. (d. 1809.)

1733.Bourbon family compact between France and Spain. War of Polish succession between France and Austria. Joseph Priestley, discoverer of oxygen, born. Savannah, Ga., founded.

1738. France, by treaty, guarantees the Pragmatic Sanction.

1739.England goes to war with Spain about Jenkins' ear.

1740. Frederick the Great becomes king of Prussia. Charles VI, emperor of Germany, dies. Treachery of all the powers but Great Britain, who by solemn treaty had agreed to respect the rights of the Austrian succession. Frederick of Prussia begins the war.

1741. Prussia, France and Bavaria allied against Austria. Frederick makes a secret treaty with Maria Theresa and deserts his allies.

1742. Frederick treacherously repudiates his treaty with Maria Theresa and renews the war.

1743. England supports the cause of Maria Theresa and declares war. Thomas Jefferson born. (d. 1826.) Toussaint L'Ouverture, the negro liberator of Hayti and the greatest captain that race has produced, born. (d. 1803.)

1745. Last Jacobite revolt in England. New England troops capture Lewisburg. The French defeat the British and Dutch at Fontenoy, where the Irish refugees make their famous charge and win a victory for France. Death of the emperor Charles VIII and election of Francis I, husband of Maria Theresa, to the throne. Peace between Austria and Prussia.

Ferdinand VI: 1746-1759

Second son of Philip V. and Maria Louisa of Savoy, born September 23, 1713. His elder brother, Louis, died in 1725 and he was then proclaimed Prince of Asturias, which title corresponds to that of Prince of Wales. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father in 1746.

His health was poor, his character not strong, and he left the government of his kingdom in the hands of his ministers and his wife.

During his reign he kept out of foreign complications as much as possible, and the affairs of his kingdom improved somewhat.

As he grew weaker he became melancholy and despondent, and died insane. He had no children, and, according to the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, was succeeded by his half brother, Charles III.

Aix-la-Chapelle

The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the wars of the Austrian succession. By the terms of this treaty made between all the belligerents in that war, the prisoners were released without ransom, the conquests made during the war returned, France recognized the Brunswick succession to the English throne and expelled the Pretender from the French court; England was to have the right to trade with the Spanish colonies for four years; the election of the Austrian emperor was acknowledged and Austria compelled to give up Silesia and Glatz to Frederick.

The general verdict of history upholds the justice of the cause of the heroic Maria Theresa and condemns the treachery and injustice of the ambitious and unscrupulous rulers who sought to make her difficulty their opportunity. Of all the nations who by solemn treaty had agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, England alone kept faith.

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with This Period

1747.French invade Holland. Franklin proves that lightning is electricity.

1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.

1749. Halifax, Nova Scotia, founded. Publication of "Tom Jones" and John Wesley's "Account of Methodists." Birth of Charles Fox, English parliamentarian. (d. 1806) Laplace, one of the greatest astronomers and mathematicians born. (d. 1827) Birth of Jenner, who discovered the principles of vaccination. (d. 1823) Mirabeau born. (d. 1791) Goethe born. (d. 1832)

1751. Clive begins his celebrated military career in India. Change of calendar in England from old style to new. Publication of Gray's "Elegy in a Country Churchyard."

1754. The French built Fort Duquesne; Washington's expedition against it. Founding of Columbia College (King's College) in New York.

1755. French and Indian war. Braddock's defeat. Lisbon earthquake. Hahnemarin, founder of homeopathy, born. (d. 1843) John Marshall, first Chief Justice of America, born. (d. 1835)

1756. Death of English prisoners in the Black Hole of Calcutta.

1757. Byng (English admiral) fails to relieve Minorca, besieged by Spain. Frederick defeats Austria at Prague; is defeated at Colin. Clive wins important victories in India for England. Canova born. (d. 1822) Lafayette born. (d. 1834) Alexander Hamilton born. (Killed in duel by Burr, 1804)

1758. Americans capture Lewisburg and Fort Duquesne. Nelson born. (d. 1805: Trafalgar.) Robespierre born. (d. 1794)

1759.General Wolfe captures Quebec from French. British capture Niagara, Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Opening of the British Museum.

Charles III: 1759-1788

Born 1716; died 1788; succeeded to the Spanish throne 1759 on the death of his half brother, Ferdinand VI.

He was a younger son of Philip V., and some possessions in Italy falling to him when he was fifteen years old, he was sent with an army to occupy them. Charles possessed more than average ability, and had the good sense to surround himself with faithful and competent advisers. When eighteen he conquered the two Sicilies, and the emperor of Germany recognized him as their king. When called to the Spanish throne he instituted some needed reforms, and under his care the domestic affairs of Spain were greatly improved.

Family Compact

In 1761 he made what was known as the "Family Compact," with all the leaders of the House of Bourbon, the chief of whom was the king of France, by which the enemy of either was to be considered the enemy of both, and neither was to make a treaty of peace without the consent of the other. Though the treaty was secret, Pitt, the English statesman, suspected it and was anxious to declare war against Spain at once. The English ministry finally agreed to it and hostilities began in 1762.

As a result, Manila and Cuba were captured by the English, and when the Peace of Paris was made in 1763 Spain gave up Florida to England in exchange for them.

Charles and his ministers were engaged in a struggle with the church, which had numerous holdings of property throughout Spain, and some excellent reforms were made.

It was during his reign that the Jesuits were expelled from Spain, and sufficient pressure was brought to bear upon Pope Clement XIV in 1773 to compel him to suppress the Order.

American Revolution

This monarch is of interest to Americans, as he recognized their independence in the Revolutionary struggle and loaned them $174,017.13 in 1781, the third foreign loan that the colonies were able to obtain, France having furnished the other two.

The time seemed a good one to even old scores with England, and hostilities were commenced in 1779. A plan for the invasion of England by the allied forces was formed, and a powerful naval force rode unchallenged in the Channel. As usual, dissension arose among the leaders, and the opportunity was lost.

A long siege by the allied Spanish and French forces was conducted against Gibraltar, but without success. (See Gibraltar, Philip V.) In 1783, after much difficulty, the treaty of peace was signed at Versailles, by which the independence of the United States was recognized and East Florida, Honduras and Milan restored to Spain.

Charles died in 1788. Though not of commanding genius, lie compares very favorably with Spanish monarchs, and under his administration the country materially improved.

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with this Period

1760. Death of George II> Accession of his grandson, George III.

1762.England declares war against Spain and captures Havana, Cuba. Paris suppresses the Jesuits. Empress Elizabeth of Russia dies. Paul III accedes. Is murdered. Accession of Catherine II to the throne.

1763. End of the Seven Years' War. Treaty of Paris. Great Britain secures all the Canadian dominion from France.

1764. Lous XV prohibits Jesuit organizations in France. Survey of Mason and Dixon's line. the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, now begun.

1765. George III of England has his first attack of insanity. Passage of "Stamp Act" for taxation of the American colonies. Blackstone's "Commentaries" published.

1767. Andrew Jackson born. (d. 1845) J. Q. Adams born. (d. 1848.) Jesuits suppressed in Spain.

1769. Spain, France and Naples demand suppression of the order of the Jesuits of the Pope. Watt patents his steam-engine. Arkwright patents his "water frame." Publication of "Letters of Junius." Wellington born. (d. 1832.) Bonaparte born. (d.1821) Culver born. (d. 1832.)

1770. Hargrave patents his "spinning jenny." Publication of "Encyclopoedia Britannica" and GoldSmith's "Deserted Village."

1772. Prussia, Austria and Russia agree to divide Poland among themselves. Lord Mansfield, English justice, decides that a slave cannot be held in England.

1773. Pope Clement XIV abolishes the Order of the Jesuits. Warren Hastings appointed governorgeneral of India. "Boston Tea Party." Birth of Metternich. (d. 1859)

1774. Death of Louis XV. Succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI. American colonies call their first Continental Congress. Priestley discovers oxygen.

1775. American Revolution begins. Battles of Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill.

1776. The British army evacuates Boston. Americans defeated at Long Island. Declaration of Independence. Washington victorious at Trenton. Publication of Paine's "Common Sense;" Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;" Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations."

1777. Washington victorious at Princeton. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown. Burgoyne surrenders at Saratoga. American army winters at Valley Forge.

1778. War between Austria and Prussia. France makes a treaty with the colonies. Indian and English irregulars massacre inhabitants of Wyoming and Cherry Valley.

1779. Wayne captures Stony Point. General Sullivan's successful expedition against the Indians near Elmira. Paul Jones, commanding "Bon Homme Richard," captures the British frigate "Serapis."

1780. Maria Theresa of Austria dies. Treason of Benedict Arnold. The natives of Peru rebel against Spain. Pennsylvania begins the emancipation of her slaves.

1781. Joseph II of Austria abolishes serfdom. Spain recaptures West Florida (Texas), from British. Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. Abolition of slavery in Massachusetts. The Dutch win naval battle over English at Dogger Banks. George Stephenson, inventor of the locomotive, born. (d. 1848)

1782. Rodney (English) wins in the West Indies the greatest naval victory of the century over De Grasee (French). Fall of Lord North from power in the English cabinet. Negotiations for peace opened between the United States and Britain. Froebel born. (d. 1852) Calhoun born. (d. 1850) Daniel Webster born. (d. 1852)

1783. Peace of Paris recognizes American independence. Catherine of Russia seizes the Crimean Peninsula, belonging to Turkey. Bolivar born. (d. 1810) Washington Irving born. (d. 1859)

1784. First daily newspaper in America published in Philadelphia.

1786. Galvani's discoveries in electricity made public.

1787. Warren Hastings impeached by House of Commons. Shay's rebellion in Massachusetts. Convention called to frame the "Constitution of the United States."

Charles IV: 1788-1808

Son of Charles III, born 1748; died 1819.

The first four years of his reign under the ministry of Florida Blanca passed prosperously for Spain. Then intrigues for the elevation of the queen's favorite, Godoy, deposed Blanca and finally placed the favorite at the head of affairs.

France was in the throes of revolution, and the Spanish king was naturally inclined to assist his Bourbon cousin, Louis XVI. France declared war in 1793 and the Spanish forces invaded the territory adjacent to the Pyrenees, captured Toulon and met with some success. They were checked by the Republicans, however, and Toulon was afterward recovered by General Bonaparte. The invaders were followed across the Pyrenees, and the greater part of the kingdom of Navarre overrun by the French. Although defeated at sea, the French were brilliantly successful in their land operations and Spain was soon reduced to abject submission. Peace was concluded with the Republicans in 1795, and the French evacuated Spanish territory in consideration of Spain's ceding to them part of the Island of San Domingo.

oon after this (1796), an alliance offensive and defensive was formed between Spain and France and war declared against England. It was wholly a naval war. and Spain met with continued defeat. Her fleet under Cordova was beaten off Cape St. Vincent by Sir John Jervis; Cadiz was blockaded, her foreign commerce almost destroyed and the English made themselves masters of Trinidad, which they have since retained.

In 1797 Spain lost Minorca to the English. The Peace of Amiens, 1801, restored Minorca to Spain and Louisiana to France.

Louisiana

It may be of interest to notice briefly the many changes of ownership of that part of the United States formerly comprised under the names of Louisiana and Florida.

The French based their claim to this region upon the explorations of La Salle, who, in 1681-82, explored the whole length of the Mississippi river.

A colonizing expedition left France September 24, 1698, and the 2d of March, 1699, reached the mouth of the Mississippi river. Curiously enough, they were able to identify the place, by finding in the hands of the Indians a letter which the Chevalier de Tonti had written La Salle thirteen years before. On the Bay of Biloxi the first colony was formed, and a fort erected to protect it. That fall an English vessel attempted to explore the region, but finding the French colonists, acknowledged their claims and retired.

In 1718 Bienville founded New Orleans. The site chosen was little better than a cypress swamp, but time has justified the wisdom of the pioneer's selection. Girls for wives of the settlers were sent from the houses of correction, and later, in 1728, a better class, each of whom was given by the company a casket containing articles of dress, etc. These were known as the "casket girls," and the later society of the province were proud to claim descent from them.

In 1755 Louisiana received many settlers from Nova Scotia, when the French were driven from that province by the English.

By the Treaty of Paris, 1763, France ceded her possessions east of the Mississippi river to England, excepting New Orleans. At this time, Spain gave up the southeastern portion of the United States, known as Florida, to England, in exchange for Cuba and Manila, which had been captured by the English. Spain was an ally of France, and to reimburse her, France ceded to Spain New Orleans and her possessions west of the Mississippi river. Spanish rule in Louisiana was not popular, and the inhabitants expelled the governor and sent messengers to the king of France, declaring that they would be a colony of France or a free commonwealth. Their appeal fell on deaf cars.

In 1769 a Spanish fleet suddenly appeared in the mouth of the Mississippi; 2,600 Spanish troops with 50 pieces of artillery were landed under Don Alexandro O'Reilly (cruel O'Reilly); the leaders of the revolt were arrested and sentenced to be hung. One of them was killed in confinement, and the only mercy shown them was, that they were allowed to be shot by a file of soldiers rather than hung.

After the war of the American Revolution and as quickly as settlements came to be made in Kentucky and Tennessee, the commercial value of the mouth of the Mississippi river rapidly became apparent. Spain claimed the right to close it absolutely to commerce from the United States, or to exact taxes which were practically prohibitory. The United States claimed that owning one side of the river, by international law, they were entitled to free navigation the entire length, with the right to land goods at its mouth, and that further, by special treaty when France conveyed the land east of the Mississippi to England in 1763, it was specifically agreed that England should have free navigation rights to the Gulf.

Spain refused to concede the justice of the American claims, levied duties sometimes as high as 75 per cent. of the value of the goods, which the sturdy backwoodsmen were little inclined to pay. There were numerous threats among them to organize an expedition to forcibly adjust matters and the question seemed prolific of international complications for the struggling colonies.

By a treaty made at Madrid in 1795, Spain had agreed that for three years the United States should have the right to free navigation to the mouth of the river and the privilege to land goods at New Orleans, and by inference and agreed that at the end of the three years the privilege should be renewed or a new port named for the landing of the goods.

At the expiration of the time named in the treaty she refused to continue the privileges, and relations at once became strained. Three thousand regular troops were mobilized in Ohio, the settlers volunteered and war seemed imminent. In the face of this preparation Spain gave way, good feeling revived, trade was resumed and immigration increased. But Spain had learned a lesson. As the American colonies on the Mississippi became more powerful they were sure to become more insistent and Louisiana would be lost to the king.

Spain Cedes Louisiana to France

On the 21st of March, 1801, a secret treaty was ratified at Madrid, whereby Louisiana was transferred to Napoleon. He meant to occupy it with a strong army and a fleet to guard the coast, but in the face of his English foe he was unable to do this and he gladly listened to proposals for its sale from the United States, although he had agreed in treaty with Spain not to sell this territory to any other power.

The treaty of sale was concluded and Louisiana passed into the hands of the United States upon the payment of 60 million francs, about $12,000,000, the United States agreeing to pay some claims her own settlers had against the French government.

The territory purchased included 2,300 square miles of what is now Alabama, 3,600 square miles of Mississippi, all of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, part of Texas, which was re-ceded to Spain, and the Dakotas, Minnesota west of the Mississippi, all but the southwestern corner of Kansas, the whole of the Indian Territory, and such part of Colorado, Wyoming and Montana as lies on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.

The southwestern boundary was not well defined and neither President Jefferson nor the French claimed that Louisiana bordered on the Pacific ocean.

In 1804 Spain again declared war against England, who had already seized her treasure fleet and held it as a pledge of Spanish faith. Every exertion was made to strengthen her navy to enable it to cope with England, but Nelson's crushing victory at Trafalgar settled that dream for all time.

Trafalgar

Napoleon mobilized an army of 100,000 men at Bologne on the English channel and prepared to invade England.

"Though 300,000 volunteers mustered in England to meet the coming attack, such a force would have offered but a small hindrance to the veterans of the Grand Army had they once crossed the channel."

Everything depended upon his being able to keep the superior English fleet at a distance. He said, "Let us be masters of the channel for six hours and we are masters of the world."

His alliance with Spain had placed the Spanish fleet at his command, which, although much shattered from its fight off Cape Vincent earlier in the year, was still powerful, and joined to the French fleet made no mean antagonist. It was his plan to draw off the British fleet by a pretended attack elsewhere, then hasten back and be able to show in the channel for a short time a superior naval force.

"Admiral Villeneuve, uniting the Spanish ships with his own squadron from Toulon, drew Nelson in pursuit to the West Indies, and then suddenly returning to Cadiz, hastened to form a junction with the French squadron at Brest and to crush the English fleet in the channel. But a headlong pursuit brought Nelson up with him ere the maneuver was complete, and the two fleets met on the 21st of October, 1805, off Cape Trafalgar. 'England,' ran Nelson's famous signal, 'expects every man to do his duty;' and, though he fell himself in the hour of victory, twenty French sail had struck then' flag ere the day was done. The French and Spanish navies were, in fact, annihilated.

"From this hour the supremacy of England at sea remained unquestioned and the danger of any invasion of England rolled away like a dream." [Green's "History of the English People."]

Spain was getting tired of her alliance with Napoleon, and his summary execution of the Bourbon Prince, Duke D'Enghien, displeased them and made them dread their powerful ally. A secret treaty was made with Portugal and England, in which they agreed to begin operations against France as soon as Russia should move, but the victory of Jena rendered Napoleon still more terrible, and they were soon in abject humiliation at his feet.

Godoy was becoming unpopular and the discontented rallied around Prince Ferdinand, heir-apparent to the throne. Factional strife was secretly fanned by French influence and soon the prince was accused of a plot to assassinate his father. He was tried by the Cortes and acquitted, and Godoy became more unpopular still and was overthrown.

Charles IV, worn out by the burdens of his throne, the disappointment of his favorite and the French plots, abdicated 1808 in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.

Synopsis of Events Contemporary with this Period

1789. Beginning of the French Revolution. Capture of the Bastille. Expulsion of the nobles. United States Government organizes under the Constitution. Washington first President. Tammany Society in New York founded.

1790. French assignats (bonds), based on lands of church and nobles which the Revolutionists confiscated, are issued as currency.

1791. French king attempts to fly and is arrested. Rise of the Girondists. Adoption of the first ten amendments to the American Constitution. Servile insurrection in Hayti.

1792. War between France, Austria and Prussia. French Revolution continued. Mob massacres the Swiss Guards in the palace of the Tuileries. French Republic proclaimed. Battle of Valma between French Republicans and foreign supporters of the king. Trial of Louis XVI.

1793. Louis XVI. executed. War between France and England. Reign of Terror in France. Charlotte Corday assassinates Marat. Execution of the queen. Poland divided a second time. Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin. France emancipates the slaves of Hayti and joins with them under Toussaint L'Ouverture against the Spanish and English.

1794. Death of Danton and Robespierre, leaders of the French Revolution. Whiskey rebellion in Pennsylvania. General Wayne defeats the Indians on the Maurnee.

1795. "The little Corsican officer" and the "whiff of grape-shot" suppresses an insurrection in Paris. Poland divided for the third time.

1796.Bonaparte invades Italy. Death of Catherine II of Russia. Washington's farewell address de'livered.

1797. Bonaparte invades Austria. Hostilities on the sea begin between America and France. British win naval victory at Cape Vincent over Spain; at Camperdown over Holland.

1798. Bonaparte goes to Egypt; captures Malta. Lord Nelson destroys French fleet at the battle of the Nile and recaptures Malta. Jenner publishes his discovery of vaccination. Count Rumford announces "Heat is a mode of motion."

1799. Bonaparte victorious at Aboukir (Battle of the Pyramids). Austrian and Russian armies advance on France. Bonaparte returns from Egypt; overthrows Directory; is made consul. New York begins the emancipation of her slaves.

1800. England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales unite under title of United Kingdom of Great Britain. Moreau (French) wins the battle of Hohenlinden. Spain gives Louisiana back to France.

1801. Paul, Czar of Russia, assassinated. Accession of Alexander I. Louisiana ceded to France by Spain. John Marshall made Chief Justice. Toussaint L'Ouverture declares Hayti free. Farragut born. (d. 1870.)

1802. West Point Military Academy established. France subjugates Switzerland. Kossuth born. (d. 1885.) Victor Hugo born. (d. 1885.) Peace between England and France. Napoleon made First Consul for life.

1803. War between England and France renewed. France sells Louisiana to the United States. Sheep farming introduced into Australia. Ericsson born. (d. 1889).

1804. Napoleon declared Emperor for life; completes Code of Napoleon, the civil law of France. Lewis and Clark explore the Northwest territory. Decatur captures and burns the "Philadelphia " under the guns of Tripolitan fort.

1805.Duel of Hamilton and Burr. Napoleon secures the crown of Italy; plans the invasion of England; occupies Vienna; wins the battle of Austerlitz. Naval battle of Trafalgar, and the death of Nelson. End of Tripolitan war with United States, and the payment of tribute.

1806. Issue of British Order in Council (May) declaring that all the coasts, ports and rivers from the Elbe to Brest should be considered blockaded. Issue of Napoleon's Berlin decree (November) charging England with violation of the national law, and ordering:

First. That the British Islands should be in a state of blockade.

Second. All commerce and correspondence with them prohibited.

Third. British subjects in a country occupied by French troops, or by troops of their allies, should be prisoners of war.

Fourth. All property belonging to British subjects should be deemed a good prize.

Fifth. No vessel direct from England or her colonies might enter any port subject to French authority.

Holy Roman Empire broken up. Francis II, the emperor, henceforth known as Emperor of Austria. Napoleon defeats Prussia at Jena; makes Louis Bonaparte King of Holland. England secures Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch.

1807. Jerome Bonaparte made King of Westphalia. Nelson destroys fleet in Copenhagen harbor. Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. British fire upon and capture United States frigate "Chesapeake."

Second British Order in Council prohibits any vessel from trading with an enemy's port shut against English vessels; orders English war ships to warn neutrals against such action, and to capture and declare them prizes in the event of their continuing such trade after warning.

Napoleon's Warsaw decree ordered the confiscation of all English merchandise found in certain German towns.

Third English Order in Council (November) declares that all countries where the English flag is excluded, even though not at war with Britain, are placed under the same restrictions for commerce as if they were blockaded.

Napoleon's Milan decree (December) declares that any vessel, of whatever nation, submitting to England's November order, will be considered British property and condemned as a prize. By these decrees the neutral commerce of the world suffered great damage.

1808. Napoleon seats Joseph on the throne of Spain. Spain revolts. Siege of Saragossa.

Next: Chapter 4: History of Spain: 1807-1897AD