Introduction
[1] Eugene Tarle, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia-1812 (London: George Allen and Unwin
Ltd., 1942), P. 40; Sovetskaya Voennaya Entsiklopediya [Soviet military encyclopedia], 6 (Moscow: Voennoe Izdatel'stvo, 1978):153 (hereafter cited as SouVoenEnts).
Chapter 1 contains many citations from National Archives Record Group 120, Records of the American Expeditionary Forces (World War I), 1917-1923, which includes a collection known as the Historical File of the AEF, North Russia (hereafter cited as Archives). The following abbreviations pertain to these records:
"Records"-" Records of Events, 'M' Co., 339th Infantry Regiment" (file 23-33.2, item 17-F).
"Operation Report"-" Operation Report, 'H' Co., 339th Infantry Regiment, Apr 7, 1919" (file 23-33.2, item 174).
"Summary"-"Summary of principal military events ... Aug 4th, 1918 to and including March 24, 1919," forwarded to War Department by Colonel Ruggles, military attache' (file 23-33.6).
"Turner Report"-" Report of Major H. C. Turner, O. C. Bolshieozerka Det., dated April 9th, 1919, covering March 31st to April 1st" (file 23-33.2, item 17-E).
"War Diary"-"War Diary, G.H.Q., Notes-Shenkursk Evacuation" (file 23-33.2, item 15-A).
[1] Leonid A. Strakhovsky, Intervention at Archangel (New York: Howard Fertig, 1971), pp. 167-77, 194, 280-84; Richard H. Ullman, Anglo-Soviet Relations, 1917-21: Intervention and the
War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1961), 1:109, 252, 2:198-99.
This section was adapted almost entirely from Chapter IV of the author's book, The White Death: The Epic of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1971), pp. 97-125. Because most of the sources cited therein are in the Finnish language they are not listed here. The additions to the above consist of a few technical details
obtained in more recent correspondence between the author and Colonel Eino Lassila, USA (Ret.), who--as a captain in the Finnish Army--participated in the battles on the Raate Road.
This section uses numerous unpublished or limited-distribution monographs from the Foreign Military Studies series. Written in the years immediately following World War II by former German officers who had fought on the Russian front, the monographs were produced under the auspices of the Office of the Chief Historian, Historical Division, Headquarters, United States Army, Europe. Also used are Department of the Army pamphlets, at least partially based on the same sources. In the footnotes these sources are cited by the following alphanumeric designations:
Department of the Army pamphlets:
Foreign Military Studies, Historical Division, Headquarters, United States Army, Europe:
[2] Eugene Tarle, Bonaparte (New York: Knight Publications, 1937), p. 271.
[3] Theodore Dodge, Napoleon (Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Co., 1907), 3:479, 507.
[4] SouVoenEnts, 1(1976):567. Count Philippe DeSegur, Napoleon's Russian Campaign, trans. J. David Townsend (Boston: Houghton Mifflin and Co., 1958), gives French strength at Borodino as only 120,000.
[5] Andrei Lobanov-Rostovsky, Russia and Europe 1789-1825 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1947), p. 223. DeSegur, p. 98, puts Napoleon's losses at 40,000. Soviet estimates of French
losses range from 50,000 to 58,578. See SouVoenEnts, 1:569; L. G. Beskrovnyi, Otechestuennaya Voina 1812 Goda [The fatherland war of 1812] (Moscow: SOTSEKGIZ, 1962), p. 397.
[6] Tarle, Bonaparte, p. 296.
[7] DeSegur, p. 167; Dodge, p. 646.
[8] Franz Halder, The Halder Diaries: The Private War Journals of Col. Gen. Franz Halder (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1977), 2:187 (7:1321 of original).
[9] Ibid., p. 183 (p. 1317).
[10] Col. Frances King discusses many of these constant factors in their modern context in "Cold Weather Warfare: What Would Happen?" Military Review 57 (November 1977):86-95.
Chapter 1
"Extracts"-" Extracts from Correspondence Files of Allied G.H.Q. Archangel" (file 23-11.5).
[2] Ullman, 1:243.
[3] Strakhovsky, pp. 44-45, 283-84; Ullman, 1:252; A. A. Samoilo and M. I. Sboichakov,
Pouchitel'nyi Urok (Moscow, 1962), p. 116; Archives, "Report of Expedition to the Murmansk Coast," compiled by Lt. Col. E. Lewis, 339th Infantry (file 23-33.2), strength return for 3 June 1919; Leonid Strakhovsky, "The Canadian Artillery Brigade in North Russia," The Canadian Historical Review, June 1958, p. 127.
[4] Samoilo and Sboichakov, pp. 8, 177; Direktivy Komandouaniya Frontou Krasnoi Armii (1917-1922) [Directives of the command of the Red Army fronts (1917-1922)], ed. V. V. Dushen'kin et al., 4 vols. (Moscow: Voennoe Izdatel'stvo, 1971-78), extrapolated from 4:33, 51 (hereafter cited as Direktivy).
[5] V. V. Tarasov, Bor'ba s Interuentami na Severe Rossii [Combat with the interventionists
in the north of Russia] (Moscow: GOSPOLITIZDAT, 1958), p. 157. Brig. Gen. Wilds P. Richardson, "Expedition in North Russia," Thomas Files, Historical Division Files, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Barracks, Pa. (microfilm no. 51315), p. 33.
[6] E. M. Halliday, The Ignorant Armies (New York: Award Books, 1964), pp. 100, 101, 113-17, 123.
[7] William Edmund Ironside, Archangel 1918-1919 (London: Constable and Co. Ltd., 1953),
pp. 54, 55, 65.
[8] Lt. Col. Joel R. Moore, "The North Russian Expedition," Infantry Journal, July 1926, p. 19.
[9] Halliday, pp. 245-47.
[10] "Summary," 17 March entry; A. A. Veresov, ed., Nezabyuaemye Imena [Unforgettable names] (Arkhangelsk: Severo-Zapadnoe Knizhnoe Izdat., 1967), pp. 187-90.
[11] Ironside, p. 121.
[12] "Summary," 18 March entry.
[13] Direktiuy, 2:21.
[14] Ibid., p. 22.
[15] Halliday, pp. 247-48; Archives, Captain Ballensinger's "Report of engagement," 24 March 1919 (file 23-33.2, item 17-H).
[16] "Summary," 23 March entry; Archives, Lieutenant Pellegrom's "Situation Report," 26 March 1919 (file 23-33.2, item 17-G); Capt. Joel R. Moore et al., eds., The History of the American Expedition Fighting the Bolsheviki (Detroit: Polar Bear Pub. Co., 1920), pp. 189-90.
[17] Ironside, pp. 121-22.
[18] Lieutenant Colonel Moore, Infantry Journal, p. 19; "Turner Report," p. 5.
[19] Compiled from Archives, "Weekly Order of Battle, Allied Forces, Archangel District, Northern Russia," dated 18 April 1919 (file 23-10.6).
[20] Lieutenant Colonel Moore, Infantry Journal, p. 19.
[21] Tarasov, p. 197.
[22] Direktiuy, 2:22; "Turner Report," p. 4.
[23] Direktiuy, 2:22; A. S. Bubnov et al., Grazhdanskaya Voina 1918-1921 [Civil war 1918-1921] (Moscow: Izd. "Voennyi Vestnik," 1928), 1:227.
[24] Bubnov, 1:227; Captain Moore, p. 190.
[25] "Turner Report," pp. 1-3; "Records," 31 March entry.
[26] Captain Moore, pp. 170, 191.
[27] "Turner Report," p. 4.
[28] "Archives, Lieutenant Colonel Morrison's Operations Order No. 1, 1 April 1919 (file 23-33.2); Lieutenant Colonel Morrison's "Report . . . on the Opertions West of Bolshieozerki on
the 2d April, 1919" (file 23-33.2, item 17-D).
[29] "Operation Report," pp. 1-3.
[30] Captain Moore, pp. 171, 301.
[31] "Operation Report," p. 5; Lieutenant Colonel Morrison, "Report"
[32] Captain Moore, p. 192; "Records," pp. 3-4.
[33] Halliday, p. 251.
[34] Bubnov, 1:227.
[35] Ironside, p. 123.
[36] Bubnov, 1:227.
[37] Captain Moore, p. 192; Halliday, p. 151.
[38] Bubnov, 1:227.
[39] Halliday, pp. 87-88.
[40] "War Diary," p. 5.
[41] Halliday, p. 134.
[42] Ironside, pp. 99-100.
[43] A. Samoilo, Due Zhizny [Two lives] (Moscow: Voennoe Izdatel'stvo, 1958), p. 240.
[44] Sovetskaya Istoricheskaya Entsiklopediya [Soviet historical encyclopedia], vol. 16 (Moscow,
1976), col. 253.
[45] "War Diary," p. 3; Direktiuy, 1:507.
[46] Samoilo, p. 239.
[47] Archives, Lieutenant Steele's report, "Attack on Shegovari," 2 May 1919 (file 23-33.2, item 15-13).
[48] Bubnov, 1:222.
[49] Ibid., p. 224.
[50] Samoilo and Sboichakov, p. 87.
[51] One Soviet source (Bubnov, p. 225) shows Filippovsky with six heavy and eight light guns.
[52] Direktiuy, 1:507, 778; Samoilo, p. 239.
[53] Direktivy, 1:508.
[54] Halliday, pp. 170-71; "Extracts," pp. 22-23; Archives, "Report of Expedition to the Murman Coast," p. 36. Nizhnyaya Gora is designated Nizhni Gora in many English-language sources, but the latter form is grammatically unlikely. Vysokaya Gora appears as Visorka Gora in many English works.
[55] Bubnov, 1:224.
[56] Halliday, pp. 170-71.
[57] Ibid., p. 170; Samoilo, p. 239.
[58] Ironside, p. 100; Halliday, p. 171.
[59] Halliday, pp. 171-75.
[60] "War Diary," p. 1.
[61] "Extracts," pp. 22-23.
[62] Halliday, p. 177.
[63] Samoilo and Sboichakov, p. 89.
[64] Ibid., pp. 177-79.
[65] Ibid., p. 185.
[66] Ironside, p. 102.
[67] Samoilo, p. 240-his dating is in error here.
[68] Ironside, p. 102; Halliday, pp. 185 ff.
[69] Halliday, pp. 187, 190-92; Samoilo, 240; Tarasov, p. 195.
[70] Halliday, pp. 148, 190; Ironside, p. 63.
[71] Samoilo, p. 240.
[72] Bubnov, 1:226,
[73] Samoilo and Sboichakov, p. 93.
[74] Captain Moore, p. 201; Capt. Donald A. Stroh, "A Critical Analysis of the North Russian Expedition . . . " Individual Research Study No. 12, Command and General Staff School,
Fort Leavenworth, Kans., 1933, pp. 26-27.
[75] Lt. W. K. M. Leader, "With the Murmansk Expeditionary Force," Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, February- November 1921, p. 666.
[76] Direktiuy, 1:516-18.
[77] Maj. Frederic Evans, "Campaigning in Arctic Russia," Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, May 1941, p. 295.
[78] Archives, Captain Price's report, "Allied Offensive on Vologda Force Front," (inclosure to Colonel Ruggles's letter of 14 January 1919), (file 23-27.8), p. 7; Archives, Major Nichols's
letter of 16 May 1919, "Operations of Railway Detachment December 30th and 31st, 1918" (file 23-33.2); Halliday, pp. 135-36, 142.
[79] Archives, Lt. John J. Baker's "Report of Engagement," 5 March 1919 (file 23-33.2, item
14-G), p. 3.
[80] Captain Moore, p. 68.
[81] Ibid., p. 190; Halliday, pp. 207-8, 251.
[82] This section was not intended to be an operational history of the North Russian campaign, but simply an examination of some of the most serious problems created by the environment.
The less dramatic operations of the Allied force based on the ice-free port of Murmansk are briefly described by Lt. W. Leader in "With the Murmansk Expeditionary Force," pp. 662-91.
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
DA PAM 20-201 Military Improvisations During the Russian Campaign, Washington, D.C., August 1951.
DA PAM 20-269 Small Unit Actions During the German Campaign in Russia, Washington, D.C., July 1953.
DA PAM 20-291 Effects of Climate on Combat in European Russia, Washington, D.C., February 1952.
DA PAM 20-292 Warfare in the Far North, Washington, D.C., October 1951.
MS B-266 "Combat in the East: Experiences of German Tactical and Logistical Units in Russia," mimeographed, Foreign Military Studies, vol. 1, no. 10, April 1952.
MS C-034 General der Infanterie Gustav Hoehne, "In Snow and Mud: 31 Days of Attack Under Scydlitz During Early Spring of 1942," 20 October
1948.
MS D-020 Generaloberst Dr. Lothar Rendulic, "Field Expedients," 23 February 1947.
MS D-035 "Effect of Extreme Cold on Weapons, Wheeled Vehicles, and
Track Vehicles," 24 February 1947.
MS D-078 General der Infanterie Otto Schellert, "Winter Fighting of the 253rd Infantry Division in the Rzhev Area in 1941-42," draft translation
reproduced by the Office of the Chief of Military History, Department
of the Army, Washington, D.C., 1952.
MS D-106 Generaloberst Dr. Lothar Rendulic, "Combat in Deep Snow," 19
April 1947.
MS D-184 Generalleutnant Walter Friedrich Poppe, "Winter Campaign
1941-42; Campaign of the 255th Infantry Division East and South of Temkino, Mid-December 1941 to April 1942 (Area of Army Group Center)," draft translation reproduced by the Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., 1953.
MS D-277 Generalmajor Karl Rein, "Regiment in the Attack Through
Snow-Covered Primeval Forests January 1942," draft translation reproduced
by the Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the
Army, Washington, D.C., 1952.
MS D-285 General der Artillerie Rudolf von Roman, "The 35th Infantry Division Between Moscow and Gzhatsk," draft translation reproduced
by the Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., 1951 [assigned 1 April 1947].
MS P-062 Generalmajor Alfred Toppe, "Erfrierungsprobleme im deutschen Heer wahrend des II. Weltkrieges" [Frostbite problems in the German
a Army during World War II], 22 February 1951.
[1] DA PAM 20-292, pp. 1-2.
[2] Kirill Meretskov, Serving the People (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1971), p. 160.
[3] Marshal Georgii Zhukov, "The Battle of Moscow," in Moscow 1941-1942 Stalingrad, compiled by Vladimir Sevruk (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1974), p. 53; Alfred W. Turney, Disaster
at Moscow: von Bocks Campaigns (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1970), p. 133.
[4] Turney, p. 133.
[5] Albert Seaton, The Battle For Moscow 1941-1942 (New York: Stein and Day, 1971), p. 159.
[6] Zhukov in Sevruk, p. 53.
[7] Col. P. Zhilin, cited in John Erickson, The Soviet High Command (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1962), p. 641.
[8] For example, DA PAM 20-291, p. 5.
[9] Ibid., p. 4.
[10] Alexander [Aleksandr Alfredovich] Bek, Volokolamsk Highway, 2d rev. ed. (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1969), p. 149.
[11] Seaton, pp. 214-17.
[12] MS C-034, p. 4.
[13] A. Emerenko, The Arduous Beginning (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1966), p. 275.
[14] German General Lothar Rendulic noted that, because of a hiatus in heavy snowfall for several weeks before the end of January 1942, the snow on most of the roads used for operations had already been so well packed that movement was possible. He also observed, however, that the narrow confines of such packed areas enabled the enemy to concentrate firepower effectively. MS D-106, pp. 3, 10.
[15] MS D-184, p. 19. Soviet sources support that conclusion, for example, Marshal Rokossovsky, "Forward," Soviet Military Review, no. 12, December 1971, p. 37.
[16] MS C-034, p. 5.
[17] Seaton, pp. 38, 133, 134.
[18] Turney, p. 147.
[19] Seaton, p. 213.
[20] DA PAM 20-291, p. 18.
[21] Zhukov in Sevruk, p. 53.
[22] Turney, p. 139.
[23] Lt. R. J. H. Haynes, "Soviet Techniques in Winter Warfare," Journal of the Royal United Services Institute for Defense Studies 119, no. 2 (June 1974):59.
[24] Dr. Berthold Mikat, "Die Erfrierungen bei den Soldaten der deutschen Wehrmacht im letzten Weltkrieg" [Frostbite among the German armed forces in the last world war] in MS
P-062, Anlage (appendix] 8, pp. 2, 4.
[25] Turney, p. 128.
[26] Seaton, p. 288.
[27] MS D-184, p. 20.
[28] MS D-285, p. 4.
[29] Meretskov, pp. 157, 160.
[30] DA PAM 20-269, pp. 15-18.
[31] Meretskov, pp. 160-61.
[32] Nikolai Amosoff, PPG-2266: A Surgeon's War, translated and adapted by George St. George (Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1975), p. 102.