Prelude: Brigands and Monarchs

In 1798 the Napoleon's victories in northern Italy placed the French as the dominant power on the peninsula. Ferdinand IV, the Bourbon ruler of the Kingdom of Naples, in an extraordinary display of poor sense sent his army north to occupy Rome. It was completely destroyed by the French, who then occupied Naples. Ferdinand and his wife, Marie Caroline (sister of the by then headless Marie Antoinette), fled to Palermo with the British fleet.

Ferdinand had always been an inept, and usually inattentive ruler, the French found a core of nobles and intellectuals who were happy to see the Bourbon crown depart. Taking Revolutionary France as their model the established the Parthenopean Republic, and attempted to reform the medieval government of the former Kingdom of Naples. The Republic ran into difficulties at once, as the superstitious, fervently Catholic peasantry and lazzaroni (the lowest class of the town dwellers) resented the anticlerical attitudes and policies of the Republic's intellectuals. Only the presence of the French army in Naples allowed the Republic to survive the unrest. But by the following summer, in 1799, the formation of the Second Coalition forced the French army to move north, where it was destroyed by the Russian army of Marshal Suvorov. The infant Parthenopean Republic was left to survive on its own.

Marie Caroline, always more interested in governing then her husband, though only slightly less inept, chose this moment to regain the throne. Ruling from Sicily, and fully supported by the British she entrusted command of her crusade against the "Jacobin devils" to Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo. It was, perhaps, the most effective decision she made throughout her reign. Cardinal Ruffo was landed by the British in Calabria, where he began calling for a crusade (the Sanfedisti or Army of the Holy Faith) against the atheistic Republicans. In addition to religious calls Ruffo promised land reform and an end to the hated Salt Tax. He quickly attracted a large following of peasants, the Masse, motivated as much by the loot to be gained as they were by religious feeling.

Calabria in the late Eighteenth century was a backward region by the standards of Northern Europeans. The feudal system was still alive and strong, the peasant farmer labored under a heavy and bewildering combination of noble and royal taxes. The region was staunchly Catholic, women were guarded fervently, a Calabrian woman would not appear unveiled in public. Blood ties were the sinew of society, and family vendettas or blood feuds were traditional. These vendettas were usually carried out by the local brigands, an occupation accepted in Calabria not only by the peasants (who often turned to it to supplement their incomes) but by the local priests as well. Priests often held special masses for brigands, and could even be found leading the bands themselves.

Cardinal Ruffo officered his growing force with the leaders of these traditional Calabrian brigands. Some remained as important players throughout the period, Fra Diavolo and Parafante being the two destined to become the most famous. They were expected to behave in a very barbarous fashion; the Mammone brothers, for example, were said to demand a freshly severed head as a centerpiece for every breakfast. While such stories have the sound of the apocryphal, it is certain that Calabrians practiced flaying, dismemberment, burning and occasional minor cannibalism against their enemies; whether French, Calabrian, or Neapolitan. Far from reviled, these brigand lords became legends in their own times. Acts which caused French and British officers to recoil in horror merely added to their semi-mystical reputations. Their savagery left an enduring legacy, the brigands' epics were related with pride to tourists into the 20th century.

In May of 1799 Ruffo moved his large force of 40,000 or so peasants (the majority of whom were Calabrian) north towards the capital. The Parthenopean Republic crumbled before them with ease, as the lazzaroni of the towns rose up and joined in the plundering. The horrid character of the coming conflicts was set as the Masse slaughtered everyone suspected of holding republican tendencies. In some cases cannibalism occurred, in others severed heads were used as balls in games. Ruffo attempted to curb these excesses, but could do little except in the case of those who surrendered. Here he was thwarted in his humanity not by the brigands or lazzaroni but by the blood-thirst of Marie-Caroline.

Along with her husband Marie Caroline embarked immediately upon a purge, determined to eradicate any signs of Jacobinism she could find. Ruffo's attempts to save those who surrendered failed, rather then allowing them to journey to France the Queen ordered them executed. Within Naples itself everyone with any connection to republicanism was beheaded. Those brigands Ruffo had arrested for atrocities, including Fra Diavolo, were released.

Besides carrying out the purge Marie Caroline reacted against any policies which seemed to hint at governmental reform. Ruffo's promises to the Calabrians were repudiated, feudal obligations returned in strength, and in some places the Salt Tax was not only reinstated, but increased. Ruffo protested these policies, causing the queen to suspect his loyalty. In protest he resigned all his offices and honors, eventually moving to Rome he played little role in the rest of the Calabrian drama. The British correctly perceived that the Bourbon policies were alienating those groups most inclined to support them, and began to distrust the Bourbons as a result. The Kingdom of Naples, and the province of Calabria, seemed to return to the status quo, the pattern of brigandage and poverty in Calabria returning essentially to its pre-Republic state.

The French Invasion and the 1806 Insurrection

The resumption of hostilities between France and Britain in 1803 brought this short period of peace to an end. Breaking an earlier treaty Napoleon sent an army to occupy some of the Kingdom's more important ports, including Taranto and Brindisi. The Queen forged a treaty with Napoleon, guaranteeing Neapolitan neutrality in exchange for the troops leaving. As soon as the French had left the country, however, she renounced the treaty and brought the Kingdom into the Third Coalition. A combined British/Russian army landed and occupied Naples but was withdrawn very shortly after the news of Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz.

The Queen attempted to reconcile once more with Napoleon but was rebuffed, he issued a proclamation disposing the Bourbons and began organizing an army to capture the Kingdom of Naples for his brother, Joseph. This force, 40,000 strong, was composed of troops ranging in quality from regular French Line troops to conscripted Polish prisoners of war. The officer corps was generally skilled, but most resented the assignment and hoped to be return to serving in the Grand Armee under Napoleon's direct command. The army advanced more quickly then expected, facing serious resistance only at Gaeta. The garrison of this peninsula town was commanded by the Prince of Hesse-Philippstead, the most competent Neapolitan commander. The siege of Gaeta would last nearly five months and consume a significant percentage of French strength.

The Queen, lacking the aid of the Russians or British attempted to recreate Ruffo's Masse among the lazzaroni of the capital. Not surprisingly, the expected enthusiasm never materialized and the Queen began to count instead upon the peasants of Calabria. The Neapolitan army, with the exception of the gallant force at Gaeta, pulled into Calabria as Marie Caroline fled to Sicily to join her husband. Operating in the difficult Calabrian mountains the Neapolitan regulars were forced to forage for supplies, alienating the native population and exacerbating the Queen's poor image.

General Reynier, a Swiss Calvinist whom Napoleon described as a "cold personality," led the French forces into Calabria on March 1, 1806. Less then two weeks later he destroyed the Neapolitan army at Campo Tenese in what can best be described as a complete rout. With the occupation of the major towns a fortnight later French control of Calabria seemed a certain thing.

This was far from the case, however. The night following the victory at Campo Tenese the French troops, very low on supplies rioted through the streets of Morano. By morning the town had been pillaged and burn, all that remained were ruined buildings, the townsfolk fleeing in the night. This event previewed the next few months, as Reynier tried to get supplies to his troops, hoping to prevent foraging. The mud and disrepair of the roads and trails of Calabria, as well as the lack of understanding and support offered by Napoleon and Joseph (both of whom considered the province conquered and expected Reynier to proceed with an invasion of Sicily) conspired to prevent this. A vicious cycle began; troops, starving, foraged for food, which prodded the struggling peasants into their traditional supplemental job, brigandage. The French convoys were the best (often only) targets for brigands, and assaults on these caravans led to a call for more troops who need more supplies and so on.

In addition to the economics of suffering under French foraging, the insular nature of Calabrian society contributed to the rising unrest as well. The Calabrians were quick to take exception to perceived or real mistreatment of their women. French troops accused of this were, if caught by the guerrillas, often castrated while alive. Moreover, the traditional vendettas were an open tradition, the Calabrians seemed eager to include the French in this quaint custom.

Reynier and his commanders recognized that the Queen's policies had provided an opportunity for gaining the support of the Calabrians, and they worked to prevent abuses by the soldiers like those which occurred in Morano. Without ready access to supplies, however, they could not prevent the underlying conflicts. The brigands and guerrillas expanded in scope and range. Reynier was forced to divide his forces among many smaller communities as a means of spreading the burden of forage and attempting to gain control of the brigand situation.

As Reynier dealt with the problems common to all centralizing forces in Calabria, the British and Bourbons in Sicily were only too aware that his job was, eventually, to invade Sicily. The arrival of Admiral Sir Sydney Smith, who favored the Calabrian brigands despite the disgust of his fellow officers, energized British support. Exploiting their control of the sea brigands were dropped with supplies and money in various hidden alcoves, they then made their way inland to add fuel to the growing resentment of the French among the peasantry. The island of Capri, within sight of Joseph's palace in Naples, was captured and used as a naval base, treating the new king to a sight of the Union Jack every day.

Sir John Stuart, the commander of the British forces in Sicily and a rival of Smith's, was well aware of Reynier's difficulties, the guerrillas provided a wealth of intelligence on his activities. In the north Gaeta was still valiantly resisting a siege by General Masseacutena, reducing the number of troops which could be reasonably expected to reinforce the province. Combined with the incessant guerrilla activity this was sufficient to indicate a British invasion of Calabria.

In late June, 1998, a British fleet demonstrated their might outside the important port of Reggio on the Strait of Messina. This diversion did not fool Reynier, however, who was well aware that the British were actually landing in the Bay of Santa Euphemia at the narrowest part of the Calabrian peninsula. Acting swiftly he summoned all available forces for a 3 day, 80 mile march which brought him within range of the British landing force.

A Vigorous Charge

Stuart landed his troops at a small, ruined tower known as Bastione de Malta. After his initial landing party routed a small force of Polish conscripts he set his troops to constructing defenses around his landing site in case he was defeated and driven into the sea. As Reynier was marching swiftly towards Maida, Stuart's men completed this work, joined by 200 or so Calabrian brigands, whom the British armed.

Stuart received news of Reynier's arrival at Maida on July 3. He ordered a march down the beach towards the French positions, covered by the guns of the Royal Navy. That afternoon, while the British marched 10 miles or so, the two commanders reconnoitered the next day's battlefield.

Stuart found that Reynier had chosen an especially strong position for his camp. Atop a broad hill which commanded the plain before it, flanked on Reynier's left by an impenetrable region of underbrush, to the front was the River Lomato, shallow and easily crossed but an obstacle nonetheless, it was thus only approachable on the left.

Though he was convinced that he could make no headway against the strongly positioned French camp, Stuart ordered an advance inland against the position at dawn on July 4. Reynier responded by moving his own troops down the hillside. Stuart believed at this point that Reynier was withdrawing, despite the fire of Reynier's only artillery, two 4 lb. mountain guns. Stuart continued advancing, detailing a pair of six pounders from his larger artillery train to counter the French fire. The French guns were soon silenced and play no further part in the battle.

By this time it was clear that Reynier was preparing to attack the British force, Stuart drew his force up into lines across the small valley mouth and advanced towards the French. On his right he placed his Light Brigade and a Swiss regiment under Lt. Colonel Kempt, supported by some Sicilian and Corsican light troops. In the center stood General Acland and the Second Brigade, and on the left Brigadier Cole's First Brigade. In reserve he kept Colonel Oswald and the Third Brigade. Each of these brigades was supported by two or three four pounder mountain guns. In between the First and Second Brigades he placed three six pounders. All told Stuart had approximately 5,200 soldiers and an indeterminate number of brigands.

Reynier had determined to attack as soon as Stuart had passed beyond the protective range of the British fleet's guns, believing that a "vigorous charge" would crush the British army, preventing them from reembarking after their defeat. On the French left, under Compere, the 1st Leger and the 42nd Line formed their columns, in the center a dozen companies of Polish infantry and a battalion of the 1st Swiss under General Peyri, and finally, on the French right, the 23rd Leger under General Digonet. Three hundred or so troopers of the 9th Chasseurs guarded the flank of the French right, which rested on an open plain. Reynier had between 5,000 and 5,500 men.

The French advanced in staggered order, Compere's columns were to meet and destroy Kempt before the center or right flanks engaged. Due to the lack of French artillery Reynier sent several companies of light infantry through the brush along the Lomato river, intending them to take a position on Kempts flank and support Compere's advancing columns with fire along the enfiladed British lines. Kempt was aware of this danger and had deployed his Sicilians and Corsicans in this underbrush. At first the French made headway here, however, and Kempt was forced to send two companies of British infantry to stabilize the flank. They were able to do this and still return to their place in the line before Compere's columns reached Kempt's line.

The French columns thus advanced on the British without the support of artillery or the flank action Reynier intended to replace it. The 1st Leger's column broke under three volleys of musket fire and grapeshot from Kempt's division, the 42nd Line broke as well after two volleys from Acland's center line. Compere refused to accept the rout and was captured charging the British ranks alone. Acland pursued the 42nd as it retreated, falling upon the French center. The Poles routed at the sight of his advancing troops, the only resistance was put up by the Swiss who retreated in good order to join the as yet unengaged French right under Digonet. Reynier had his horse shot out from under him at this point while trying to rally (unsuccessfully) the fleeing Poles. Within 20 minutes the French advance had been stopped and the units involved destroyed. Kempt's brigade, pursuing the fleeing 1st Leger, over extended itself and sacked the French camp. The remainder of the British army advanced on Digonet and the French right, who fought a careful holding action making full use of the British lack of cavalry.

Stuart followed Reynier until he left the Maidan plain, but did not pursue further. Instead, he returned to the beach where he fed and rested his men, and took pains to see the many wounded French prisoners were properly cared for. Stuart issued a call for the peasantry of Calabria to rise against the French, but tempered his call for insurrection by offering a substantial reward for live French troops and officer who were turned over to the British.

While the British troops enjoyed the beach, the French were entering into a painful retreat beset by Calabrian brigands on all sides. Communications with Joseph and the French armies in Naples was completely cut off, supplies were lacking. In order to survive the French army was forced to pillage from the towns it passed through, and discipline broke down to the point that Reynier was unable to keep order even when flailing on troops with his cane.

As the French army retreated north they came upon multiple reminders of the fate of stragglers and smaller outposts. In one town rescued French prisoners of the peasants reported that one of them had been slain each day, then cooked and fed to the remaining prisoners. In others the flayed bodies of dead French soldiers were found hanging in town squares. The French troops, hungry and tired as they marched north responded by massacring entire towns.

By late July Reynier had made it to Cassano in North Calabria, and established communications with Naples. Though at this point Calabria was essentially in chaos, the tide was beginning to turn. Gaeta finally fell on July 17, releasing troops and supplies for campaigning in Calabria. In addition, Gaeta's fall destroyed the last shreds of credibility the Bourbon court retained with the British. They had boasted that Gaeta would hold out indefinitely. Already disgusted with the atrocities committed by the Calabrian brigands the British, having insured that a French attack on Sicily was very unlikely to occur, drastically reduced their support.

Atrocities by both sides would continue, the Calabrian insurrections wouldn't truly end until 1810. That year Murat, Napoleon's replacement for Joseph on the throne of Naples, turned suppressing brigandage in Calabria over to Manhe's and provided him with the resources needed to finally suppress the brigands. The war had ended in 1806, however, when the British accomplished their goals at Maida and declined to further sully themselves with Calabria.

Conclusions

Maida has often been cited as an indication of the superiority of the British line over the French column. Examining the comparative strengths it becomes apparent that the French columns were lacking the sort of artillery support they required. Reynier attempted to compensate with the flanking movement of light troops but that failed, leaving the columns without any support in the face of artillery and a steady infantry line. In hindsight, it appears Reynier should have held tight in his camp, a strong position which Stuart didn't feel he could have made an impression upon.

For his part Stuart has been criticized for failing to pursue Reynier after the battle, especially by his own junior officers who felt a vigorous pursuit could have completely destroyed Reynier. Stuart's goal was to disrupt French plans for invading Sicily, which he accomplished. A prolonged pursuit would have forced the British troops into foraging, with the attendant danger of alienating the easily offended Calabrians. It would have required Stuart to work closely with the brigands, as well, whom he despised. Finally, a more active British presence on the isthmus might have provoked a more powerful French response, which might have then been in a position to threaten Sicily. The French disdain for the brigands worked in the British favor in this regard.

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