The British involvement in the French Colony of St. Domingo during the early years of the Napoleonic Wars was brought about by a number of reasons, With the upheaval that had occurred to the white population of this island during 1792-3 a large number of commercial and property owners with interests on the French side of this island fled to England or Jamaica pleading for support from fellow British plantation owners and to the British Government to help subdue the anarchy that had erupted in what was the richest colony of France before the Revolution. The British Government, thinking more of the commercial gains to be had than striking a blow against French Jacobins, began to organize an expedition not for the liberation of St. Domingo from the Jacobins but as an island to be captured with its commerce still intact and to maintain its old output of exports for the British Merchants and Bankers. A number of French Emigres were dispatched back to St. Domingo with the purpose of finding out just how much support could be expected if British forces were to be landed. In June 1793 General Sir Adam Williamson, who was the Governor of Jamaica, was authorised by the Secretary of State for War, Henry Dundas, to sign a capitulation accepting the temporary surrender of St. Domingo to the British and he also gave him discretion to employ a portion of his own troops in taking possession of the said island. This temporary surrender document was the work of the French Emigre Charmilly who was one of those sent back by the British and who had managed to persuade other plantation owners that this was their best plan of action to obtain the pre-Revolutionary life styles back again and by September this document was duly signed and dispatched to Jamaica by the planters, commiting Britain to protect the French population of the island who were loyal to the British Crown. Abolition of Slavery With news that the British were building up an expeditionary force to invade St. Domingo caused the French Commissioners there, Santhonax and Polverel, to proclaim the abolition of slavery, promising freedom to all slaves that joined their standard. With this rash declaration many slaves went into the mountains where they joined groups of other ex—slaves gaining the determination never again to become slaves, with dire consequences for the British and French expeditions sent there. Williamson immediately upon signing this capitulation from the French planters ordered the 13th Foot, the flank companies from the 49th Foot plus a small detachment of Artillery with 4 cannon, in all about 700 men, to embark for St. Domingo. This force sailed on the 9th September, it is of interest to note that its commander was Lt. Colonel John Whitelocke of the 13th Foot, who would command the British troops that invaded Buenos Aires in 1806 but that is another story. British Landing This British force landed at the town of Jeremie which was the headquarters of Charmilly and his colleagues, meanwhile Commodore Ford with his 4 frigates sailed to the Mole St. Nicholas taking a French officer with him to help in gaining the support of this garrison to the British cause and on the 22nd September this garrison also wecomed the British. Another reason for this was that a large force of rebellious negroes were heading towards this fort with the intent to capture it, the whole garrison now swore allegiance to the British crown, while the French Regiment of Dillon, only a mere handful of troops, passed into British pay. Commodore Ford now dispatched a message to Whitelocke for a company of the 49th to help strengthen this new British possession. The Governor of Jamaica upon hearing of these events also sent the Battalion companies of the 49th Foot to the Mole St. Nicholas. In early December 1793, the flank companies of the 62nd Foot arrived at Jeremie and the 20th Foot arrived on the 17th January. With these fresh troops from Jamaica more towns and villages began to join the British side. To gain more from this advantagous situation further troops were needed which forced Williamson, in Jamaica, to dispatch in late December 1793 the 1st Battalion of the 1st Royals then stationed in Jamaica to help garrison the Mole St. Nicholas, this Battalion was already down to a strength of only 400 men, with these troops gone Jamaica was now left with only 150 men with which to defend itself, although another 2 full Battalions were promised by Dundas to be sent from England. Victory On the 2nd February 1794 Whitelocke tried again to capture the town of Tiburon, having failed the previous year, using the flank companies of the 13th, 20th and 49th Foot under the command of Major Brent Spencer, who attacked the defenders without pausing to fire but directly with the bayonet during the night, capturing 150 prisoners and 25 field pieces, although most of the garrison managed to escape. This victory gave Whitelocke a strong outpost to impede any Jacobin advance coming from Port au Prince and further capture of other villages and towns along this route by the British were to follow. The Town of L'Acul was captured on the 18th February and with it the adjoining parish of Grande Goave who also surrendered and took the oath of allegiance. The British garrison at Leogane was strengthened with a view to advance to Port au Prince where a Naval blockade was being maintained, but when the capture of it by the Negroes on the 22nd March and a flood of some 2,000 refugees including 100 French soldiers arrived at Leogane any thoughts of any advance was quickly dropped. For the British garrison there at this time only amounted to 220 men of whom only 80 were fit for duty causing severe administative dificulties in trying to control the great influx of refugees. Williamson knowing full well what the setbacks of the late arrival of any of the reinforcements promised from Britian could cause began to organize two Legions of Black and Mulattos, one under the command of M.de Montalembert [Legion de la Grande Anse] a white planter was raised for the protection of Jeremie and Leogane while the other was commanded by a Mulatto called La Pointe which was to opperate in the District of St. Marc. These troops although much needed by the British were often treated with contempt by the French white population who looked at them for their protection when things became hot but still could not find it in themselves the means with which to treat them as equals. The French Republican General Anore Riguard, a Mulatto and rival to Toussaint L'Ouverture, managed to attack the British garrison at Tiburon in late April with some 2,000 men and a small cannon, after 5 hours of fighting he called a halt and withdrew leaving 170 dead on the field, during this attack the garrisons magazine was hit and the defenders had fired some 40,000 rounds of ammunition with a loss of 28 killed and 109 wounded, one can imagine the sigh of relief when the attackers left. This setback did not deter Rigaud who fell back only to attack the town of L'Acul on the 3rd May, but this also was repulsed. Reinforcements After 8 months, reinforcements finally arrived at the Mole St. Nicholas, it consisted of the Battalion companies from the 22nd, 23rd, and 41st Foot, in all some 1,600 men under the command of Major General Whyte, these troops had been sent from Guadeloupe by General Grey. After making the defences and garrison of the Mole St. Nicholas up to scratch General Whyte with the aggrement of Commodore Ford and Whitelocke began an offensive to capture Port au Prince. He ordered the Militias of Arcahais and Leogane to threaten the Port from the North and South respectively, while landing a force of 300 British troops and some detachments from the local volunteers on the 31st March a mile west of Fort Bizothon. While these troops marched to the Fort two escort frigates bombarded it, silencing its guns so that when at 8 o'clock Captain Daniel of the 41st, with only the advance guard of 60 men and during a violent thunder storm, made a surprise attack upon the Fort they carried its defences and gave him possession of it with only slight casualities. Having captured Fort Bizothon General Whyte could now land additional troops to the north of the Port while a heavy bombardment was carried out on the defenders positions, until on the 4th June the Republican foces spiked the 101 cannon of its defences and evacuated the Port. The British on entry found that the port contained 22 merchant vessels with cargoes worth nearly 𧺬,000 also they had captured the Capital of French St. Domingo. More British reinforcements arrived being the flank companies of the 22nd, 23rd and 41st Foot, all from General Greys forces on Guadeloupe, on embarkation they had numbered 420 strong but upon sailing into Port au Prince on the 8th June only 250 had managed to stay alive all the rest had died through sickness. It is interesting to note that on the 29th 3une the 7 British Battalions in St. Domingo numbered more than 1,700 sick and 2,000 in good health but by the 17th July 34 out of 64 officers recently landed were dead and that by the end of August 729 men had likewise perished. With these rates of losses the British had to recruit seriously local volunteers, both Williamson and Whyte agreed to the employment of black and mulatto troops but as commanders for such units raised were countless rogues. Such individuals recieved bounty, clothing, rations for their troops, large allowances and rank for themselves while with a troop of horse the unit could be called a Legion with greater privileges for its commanders. Much abuse of the system was carried on by some commanders, many ex—plantation owners would enlist their slaves and then set them back to work the fields pocketing the pay and rations, others could and were used for the purpose of plunder, extortion and revenge. Here is a list of some units that were raised at this time, it would be interesting to know further details on the uniforms and strengths of these British raised Corps, Chasseurs de Prince de Galles, Regiment of Colonial Cavalry, Chasseurs Royaux de la Reine, Gensdarmes Royaux Anglais, Guides du Royal Marechausse. Also Charmilly had managed to be allowed to raise a Regiment in England called the Uhlans Britanniques de St. Domingue, its nucleus being some four troops of Germans from the dis-banded Regiment of De Bouille, the remainder were French deserters and prisoners of war. This unit was also called the Dragons de Charmilly and Lanciers d'Osmund, it would later be disbanded although raised again as the Cavalerie de la Legion Britannique de St. Domingue. These Dragoons of Charmilly were issued with jackets in red lined blue with yellow turnbacks, black cuffs, red collar, blue breeches, boots and helmets were in the same style as issued to British Light Dragoons of this period. St. Marc During this year, 1794, the British had captured the town of St. Marc placing Captain Thomas Brisbane of the 49th Foot as its garrison commander, this position guarded the northern flank of Port au Prince and the Plains of the Artibonite, Boucassin and Arcahais. For his garrisson Brisbane had at his disposal 80 British troops, a handful of French Regulars and about 300 reluctant Spaniards. He began to organize a local Militia and to raise a Black Legion which he was to command of 1,200 men. With this force Brisbane maintained control over an area of 1,000 miles, prevailing on over 10,000 ex—slaves to return to work with their masters while recruiting 400 of them into the British Army for a period of five years at the end of this period of time their freedom would be granted. While this force was out on one of its many forays into the plains, the town of St. Marc was attacked and fell into the hands of the Republican forces who on entering the town massacred all the inhabitants that they could find and burning half of the town, two days later the Republican force was increased when Toussaint with his troops entered the town. News of this attack caused Brisbane to bring all of his troops back to St. Marc so as to re-capture it, after eleven days of constant fighting Brisbane reicieved reinforcements and with these extra troops he was able to drive Toussaint's force out of St. Marc and across the Artibonite, without this stiff defence at St.Marc maybe the forces of Toussaint would have carried on to Port au Prince and further. The Republican General Rigaud started a campaign in November to gain control of Leogane, here his troops also massacred every French planter that could be found and took control of the whole District. Rigaud was now in a good position to attack Port au Prince but before he could he had to attack Fort Bizothan which was his main obsticle on the south west side of the Port. Secretly Rigaud assembled 2,000 men with which he planned to attack the Fort and on the morning of the 5th December this force began its assault in three attacking columns. The British Garrison at this time amounted to only 120 soldiers from various Battalion flank companies, luckily they were on the alert for just such sort of attack and after a hour Rigaud was forced to retire leaving 250 dead on the field and taking his wounded of the garrison 22 of its men were killed and wounded, one can imagine the thoughts of those in Port au Prince while these two campaigns by Toussaint and Rigaud were under way to the north and south of them, did they have a common aim to try and unite in front of Port au Prince or were they trying to out—manoeuvre each other in the quest for overall command? Rigaud was not to be stopped by this defeat, he now attempted to capture the town of Tiburon in the west, he reached there by using a Brig of 16 guns and 3 armed schooners, these carried 3,000 men, who disembarked and attacked on the 25th December. A small armed vessel was in the harbour at this time which gave up a gallant resistance to the 3 ships of Rigaud but he landed 5 cannon and with these he began to fire at it until it blew up, as a result of a direct hit by a red hot shot. With this obstacle gone it was now the turn of the land forces to deal with Rigaud's force, the garrison numbered 480 men, chiefly from Jean Kina's Black Corps. Amongst the disembarked troops was large mortar that fired a 50lb shell with this instrument the garrison's defensive artillery was knocked out plus wounding a fourth of the defenders. The siege lasted until the 29th when a mortar shell exploded among a large group of Kina' s men creating havoc and panic most of this group headed directly for the drawbridge forcing it down and fleeing for their lives to Jeremie leaving Lieutenant Bradford of the 23rd Foot to organize an advance and rear guard with his remainding troops so that the wounded could be huddled in the centre he then evacuated the fort and headed towards Jeremie too, about 300 of the garrison were killed and wounded most of the latter who were captured were slain. The returns for the British troops on St. Domingo for December 1794 shows that of the 7 Battalions that were on the island just under 1,100 men of all ranks were fit for duty while over 700 was sick and this was during a so called healthy season. To try and eliviate this problem all black recruits were offered emancipation at the end of their service, Williamson wrote to Dundas "The security of the Colony will depend on them and the brigands will never be reduced but by Negro Corps." Loss of Saltrou January 1795 saw the loss of Saltrou, a small port to the west near the Spanish border, while in February Thomas Brisbane of St. Marc fame was killed during a reconnaissance patrol along the River Artibonite also Colonel Markham was killed during March, these were two of the most able British Officers on the island who had managed to become adept at this type of warfare and recruitment. Reinforcements arrived from Britain these were the 81st and the 96th Foot, of the 81st only 3 subalterns arrived instead of the expected 29, and when on the 1st June Williamson inspected 5 companies from Murray's Regiment at St. Marc it consisted of only 37 fit for duty while 196 were laid up sick. Sir Williamson had sailed to take overall personal command in St. Domingo, landing there on 12th May after supervising its affairs from Jamaica since 1793, before this all orders had to be sent to Jamaica for approval. The returns for the British troops on the island on the 1st June shows 3,000 men of these 1,700 were on the sick list with the rest fit for duty. In July this figure for fit men had shrunk to only 500, forcing Williamson to decree that slave owners were to furnish 1 negro in 15, whatever the total number was irrespective of sex, for service in the field at 㿿 per head with freedom for the slave after 5 years service. More reinforcements were still needed if Britain was to hold on to this colony but the last shipment fron Britain had been waylaid at Jamaica due to the Maroon uprisings and only a handful of troops under the command of Major General Forbes reached St. Domingo at the end of July. Even with these the total strength of the British on the 1st August was down to 2,000, on the 8th August the 82nd Foot arrived from Gibraltar, during August and September 900 British troops died so that by the 1st October returns for the British troops had been reduced to 1,300 fit with 1,000 sick. Spanish Cede to France Towards the end of November news reached the island that the Spanish Government had ceded her portion of St. Domingo to France, this helped in producing pro-British suport from the Spanish planters and also caused Dundas to devote more troops to the island making Major General Forbes Commander in Chief with Sir Williamson was to return to England. Among the letters of instructions sent by Dundas to Forbes was notice that although empowered to raise Black troops he was forbidden to promise emancipation after 5 years service to these recruits, Dundas was recieving pressure from influential Jamaican Planters and Politicians to stop this practice for fear of what might happen in Jamaica. Luckily Forbes agreed with Williamson that on this matter the negroes had to be given an incentive not to desert at the first opportunity to the enemy and this instruction was ignored. Other instuctions to Forbes was that he could spend 㾻,000 on negotiations with the revolted negro and mulatto leaders in the hope of gaining them over to the British viewpoint, while an additional reinforcement of 16,000 men was being organized by Dundas for St. Domingo and with these troops operations to the north of the island could be envisaged. The Winds of Wellington In early January the 66th and 69th Foot arrived from Gibraltar but this was to be the bulk of the 16,000 men earmarked by Dundas as the majority of the transports from England were driven back into port by storms, on board one of these ships was Lt. Colonel Arthur Wellesley of the 33nd Foot. His transport was one of the thirty that had to remain in port during these storms and his destination was to be altered to India, if these storms had not occured maybe the later Duke of Wellington would have found an early grave in St. Domingo and history would have been changed? This drastic reduction had severe repercussions on the British for the Spanish now looked upon themselves to determine their future with the aid now of Toussaint who had joined their cause, if only to gain rank and prestige, he would later re-join the French side but with the rank of General. At the same time negotiations with other rebel leaders ceased making Rigaud once more a major threat to Forbes who when these reinforcements arrived decided upon an attack on Leogane, one of Rigauds strongholds but was forced to withdraw due to the lack of heavy siege artillery. Further ships arrived in May from the earlier expedition, the units that landed were from the 17th, 32nd, 56th, 67th, 93rd and 99th Foot with detachments of the 39th Foot while the foriegn troops consisted of Lewes's Foot, The York Hussars, and Rohan's Hussars. In June, another group of transports arrived, these were to be the remainder of this expedition, it consisted of the 13th, 14th, 17th, 18th, 21st, 26th and 29th Light Dragoons [the 13th and 17th apparently having only 4 troops in each], Hompesch's Hussars, Montalembert's Legion [of all three arms] and 187 Dutch Artillerymen, this force was under the command of Major General Whyte. The British troop returns for the 1st July 1796 shows 3,155 men fit for duty with 2,099 sick, the Foriegn troops numbered 3,188 fit for duty with 466 sick, during the months of May and June 1,300 men had died. A unit of 1,300 men stationed at the Mole St. Nicholas suffered the loss of 30 Officers and 500 men through yellow fever during the month of July 1796. More reinforcements were asked for from Jamaica which sent a Battalion from the Irish Brigade of 2 Battalions that had newly arrived there, its strength when landed was only 400 men. Alas further details of British losses from September 1796 and February 1797 are not available they may even have been destroyed to cover up these horrenous casualties which could have been used against the Government and its foriegn policy. French Troops Arrive New French Republican troops arrived at Cap Francois and with it a more united front was organized against the British forces notably the recruitment of Toussaint and his troops away from the Spanish but this was to take time which allowed the British to gain the confidence and control over the areas of occupation without having to fight many engagements, so that by the end of that year 1796 General Whyte wrote to Dundas in February 1797 "There is every prospect of the South being added to the British flag; but if Aux Gayes, Tiburon, Jacmel and Leogane were added to us, how could we occupy them?" Whyte had been in negotiations with Rigaud at that time and it seemed that Rigaud would join the British cause, at a price. The British forces were now quite low, in fact the 32nd Foot was strengthened to 500 men from other Regiments on the island and dispatched to help garrison the Bahamas, while the remains of the Light Dragoons which then numbered the 26th and 29th were sent to garrison Barbados due to Spain declaring war on Britain. What had once been a force of some 9,000 European troops in 1796 was now in February 1797 down to 1,4000 men. The expense to the British Nation for the upkeep of all the troops used, including local units, had risen from 𧷤,000 for 1794 to nearly 𧿘,000 for 1795, to more than ٠,000,000 for 1796 and as for the month of January 1797 the bill was 𧽴,000 alone! At last the British Government saw some sense in that it decreed that the total expense to the British Nation for the annual upkeep for troops on St. Domingo was not to exceed 𧷤,000, this policy was to be carried out by the new Commander in Chief General Simcoe. By the time of General Simcoe's arrival the forces under Toussaint had captured the outpost of Mirebalais and defeated the relief column under Montalembert. While other French Republican troops attacked outposts near Banica forcing this fort to be abandoned, the outpost of Grand Bois was also abandoned enabling the enemy to enclose Port au Prince. On the 11th April 600 men from the 40th Foot arrived at Port au Prince along with some other small detachments of troops, with these Simcoe managed to drive Toussaint from his positions around Port au Prince, all was going well until news that Rigaud had attacked the town of Irois on the night of the 18th April although he had been repulsed he was begining to lay siege to the town. Simcoe was compelled to stop his engagements arround Port au Prince and dispatch a Zorce under his Aide Lt. Colonel Maitland to relieve the outpost at Irois. This force under Maitland would have arrived too late but by chance the British Frigate "Magicienne" saw the supply ships of Rigaud at anchor and managed to destroy them all, saving Irois and causing Rigaud to end his siege. Simcoe now ordered that the commander of Irois, Brigadier Churchill report to him to act as his second in command at Port au Prince, leaving Maitland in command at Irois. Simcoe' s next two expeditions to rid himself of Toussaint's forces arround Port au Prince achieved nothing. In mid-July both General Simcoe and Lt. Colonel Maitland returned to England as their reforms for the expenditure of the island was set in motion, leaving General Whyte in Command again. With their departure, the reforms gradually began to be felt with two of the Foriegn Corps demanding to be shipped back to England, many French planters who had raised troops now began to resign their commissions and sail to the U.S.A. with whatever plunder they could take, two most notable were Montalembert and the Viscount De Bruges while others recruited by Charmilli deserted to the French lines, one would imagine that these deserters were the French prisoners of war recruited from England. Renewed Attacks Toussaint renewed his attacks arround Port au Prince during August and September also Whyte recieved news from Dundas that circumstances in Britain forbade the dispatch of any further reinforcements caused Whyte to write back "I must tell you that if evacuation takes place, desolation will ensue and the faith of the country, pledged by every General in Command here will be broken. If such a thing should be in agitation, what are a handful of worn out British soldiers to do against 6,000 disciplined blacks, backed by the French...." Towards the end of January the rebels under Toussaint, Rigaud and La Plume appeared to have aggreed to attack the British rather than their own different fractions, whereby they attacked every British station, Toussaint attacking Mirebalais, Grand Bois and other posts in the north and east regions. With Rigaud attacking Irois with renewed spirit and vigour while La Plume attacked the posts on the side of Leogane causing St. Marc and Port au Prince to be seriously threatened by March. Meanwhile Lt. Colonel Maitland was instructed to sail back to St. Domingo as Aide to General Nesbitt who was to become the new British Commander in Chief, Maitland had been privy to a number of discussions by members of Parliament and Cabinet to fully understand how policy for this island was looked upon in London. General Nesbitt never reached St. Domingo as he came down with a serious illness at Madeira on the outward journey and later died there. When Maitland arrived at Mole St. Nicholas on 12th March he proceeded to Port au Prince to await the arrival of General Nesbitt and to assist General Whyte who realising that his style of leadership was not now required tacitly abdicated his Command to Maitland until the arrival of General Nesbitt. Maitland's Offensive Maitland began with an offensive in the Plains of the Arcahais, defeating the enemy in two sussessive actions with a loss to the enemy of some 700 men. This allowed men to be diverted to Irois and Jeremie which were still under periodic attacks, these outposts were mainly manned by colonial troops without a reserve force that could be dispatched to relieve positions under attack. Maitland managed to raise 1,000 men to be shipped to this region by the 1st April, when in mid April news that another attack was expected at Mole St. Nicholas forced Maitland to sent 300 men there, leaving Port au Prince so bare of troops that there was not enough to relieve the guards. Evacuation of Port au Prince could now be procceeded with as was outlined by the British Governments first orders to General Nesbitt. At this junture Maitland began negotiations with Toussaint and by the 10th May a suspension of armed conflict was agreed upon, this was to last for 5 weeks but by the 18th May all of the British troops had left Port au Prince for ever, with Toussaint having promised to respect the lives and properties of its inhabitants. With this treaty Maitland had given to Toussaint the claim that he commanded the rebel forces on the island rather than Rigaud who was very pro-Directory and therefore anti—British, wereas Toussaint veiws now were based on the emancipacion of the slaves and equality. Maitland could now go on the offensive in the area of Jeremie using some 4,000 troops were he wanted to try and curtail the enterprises of Rigaud and therefore bringing down his future capabilities for the leadership of the rebels. This campaign began with a seabourne attack on Irois, Maitlaind leaving Jeremie with 800 British and 2,300 Colonial troops on the 11th June, he anchored just below Irois where 700 Colonial troops were dis-embarked with instructions to march over the mountain range with the intent to attack the rebel positions at Bois des Anglais, where the remainder of the troops would be landed and from there the joint forces would sever the communications between Tiburon an Aux Cayes. The overland troops managed to scale the range before them and taking the rebel positions by total surprise captured their battery of 5 cannon, but all endevours to land the rest of the force had to cease due to the rough seas that lasted for a week. Maitland was obliged to order the land detachment to retire and the whole enterprise was abandoned. The British forces on the island by this time now amounted to 6 Battalions ie. 17th, 40th, 56th, 66th, 67th, and 69th Foot with an effective strength of about 800 men plus detachments from the 60th Foot, The Irish Brigade, the 21st Light Dragoons and the York Hussars, making a total of some 2,300 Europeans with 6,000 Colonial troops, the latter when called upon would often desert if the occasion was suitable. By July, Maitland had made up his mind that total evacuation of the island by the British would be the only sensible thing to do, on one hand stopping the Government's finiancial burden and hopefully obtaining from Toussaint a treaty whereby the British could use 2 ports on the island to trade from. The evacuation was completed by the 5th October 1798 and a trade treaty was signed on the 13th June by Maitland and Toussaint which allowed 2 ports to be opened for trading with the British and U.S.A. merchants. Toussaint was the obvious person for Maitland to conclude a peace treaty with, he held sway over a very large number of troops, his politics would not be altered away from universal freedom and he treated all races equal. Making him a direct threat to the wishes of Paris who would continue to try and subjugate these negroes with great cost to themselves and therefore a bonus for the British military planners in London. The British campaign in St. Domingo was acknowledged in the House of Commons, at the time, to have cost over £ 4,000,000, while the mortality returns for British troops up to September 1796 was listed as 7,500 men, these do not account for the deaths of seamen or troops serving on board ships or the disabled and wounded who were to die on their return to Home Waters or Jamaica, plus off course the deaths to the Colonial Volunteers. Fortescue in his "History of the British Army" believes that the initial figure could well be doubled. SOURCES: History of the British Army, by John William Fortescue, London, 1899 - 1930. Soldiers, Sugar and Seapower, by Michael Duffy, Oxford, 1987. This Gilded African, Toussaint L'Ouverture, by W. Parkinson, London, 1978. Citizen Toussaint, by Ralph Korngold, London, 1945. The Black Jacobins, by C. L. R. James, New York, 1963. Christophe: King of Haiti, by Hubert Cole, London, 1967. Caribbean: Sea of the New World, by German Arciniegas, New York, 1946. Revolution and Civil Wars of Hayti, by Baron De Vastey London, 1823. A History of the Uniforms of the British Army, By C. C. P. Lawson, London, 1966. The Duke, by Philip Guedalla, London, 1931. Back to Table of Contents -- El Dorado Vol V No. 1 Back to El Dorado List of Issues Back to MagWeb Master Magazine List © Copyright 1992 by The South and Central American Military Historians Society This article appears in MagWeb (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other military history articles and gaming articles are available at http://www.magweb.com