"Had I been a general, I should have been of the court party; [as a] sublieutenant, I should have declared for the Revolution. " Napoleon Bonaparte[1]. The relationship between the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon is often misunderstood. The words in the above quotation certainly speak to his understanding of the social divisions brought on by the Revolution. And so much the better for the Revolution and for France that he was but a sub-lieutenant and thus declared for the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte, who is often seen as the most direct product of the French Revolution, played no role in the great events of 1789. Napoleon graduated from the Ecole Militaire de Brienne in 1784, and the Ecole Militaire de Paris on September 1, 1785, whereupon he received appointment, at the early age of sixteen, to the French Royal Artillery. He spent the next year at Valence learning his trade and studying history and other subjects. There were various disturbances throughout the country in those days, and in early August of 1786 Napoleon was sent to Lyons to quell a local disturbance. While there he wrote a prize-winning essay and began a history of Corsica. [2] For the next several years he alternated between duty assignments at Auxonne and elsewhere and leave on Corsica. In these early days, Napoleon had strong feelings about the future of Corsica and was willing to take extensive leaves, at great risk to his French military career, to become involved in Corsican politics. He also spent a great deal of time visiting his family during these leaves. By 1789 he was at Auxonne, where he refined his skills as an artillery officer. [3] He took an avid interest in the events of the Revolution, and developed a reputation as a Republican. On September 15, 1789, Napoleon returned to Corsica. While there he completed his history of that island and at one point wrote a well received address to the French National Assembly asking that Corsica become part of France. In February of 1791 he returned to duty at Auxonne, and shortly thereafter was moved to Valence. He was at Valence when the King made his ill-fated flight to Varennes on June 20, 1791. The King had evidently hoped to join with royalist military forces and force some changes in the new constitution. Instead, he was recognized and stopped at Varennes, and was taken back to Paris. This event shattered the myth that the King supported the Revolution and marked the end of any hope for his continuance in power. It also reduced dramatically the trust the people had in their government, and encouraged radical factions to make their move. As a young officer, Napoleon participated in the ceremony of the national oath on July 3, 1791. He had become active in an organization dedicated to the new constitution, and evidently took the whole thing very seriously: "Until then, I doubt not that if I had received orders to turn my guns against the people, habit, prejudice, education, and the King's name would have induced me to obey. With the taking of the national oath it became otherwise; my instincts and my duty were thenceforth in harmony." [4] The ceremony itself was a festive affair, complete with cannon, speeches, and songs. This was not unlike other public spectacles of the time that were designed to inspire support for the Revolution. Napoleon soon became restless, and his political position uncertain, given the upheavals of the time. [5] Thus in September of 1791 he joined his brother Louis and took yet another leave in Corsica. Military duty was considerably different in those days. It appears that he envisioned serving in the Corsican Army. While there he took up the Jacobin cause and became active in politics. During this time he was essentially guilty of desertion, but was able to get himself appointed adjutant-major and then elected a lieutenant-colonel, and thus avoid either a court-marshal or forfeiture of his French rank. [6] This bold move protected him from charges of desertion in France while allowing for his political intrigues in Corsica. It would not be the last time that he would make a bold political gamble. Political reverses caused Napoleon to return to Paris in May of 1792, where he was to witness two of the most important events of the Revolution. Napoleon had adopted revolutionary ideals, but was disgusted by two major Revolutionary events that involved the mob of Paris [7] On June 20, 1792, thousands of people, including some members of the National Guard, crowded into the courtyard of the Tuileries Palace. The King watched and listened from a window while speaker after speaker insulted and threatened him. He agreed to wear the cap of liberty, and eventually the crowd left. A far more serious event occurred on August 10 of the same year. Once again the Paris mob surged into the Tuileries Palace. The King, fearing for his safety, fled to the National Assembly. His last order was to his Swiss Guard, telling them not to resist. Who fired first is unclear, but fighting broke out and some 600 of the Swiss Guard were slaughtered. It was during this period that some writers feel Napoleon developed his belief that France was not ready for a democracy along the lines of the United States. Napoleon thought that such a democracy depended on a level of education and religion not yet found in France. [8] Yet he was no fan of the old monarchy either, and he deplored its development of a worthless aristocracy and the lack of true opportunity for the advancement of worthy but untitled citizens. In the words of Abbott, Napoleon wanted (and established) a government "which should govern the people, which should throw every avenue to greatness open to all competitors [9] Meanwhile, after continued agitation on his part, Napoleon's irregular absences were excused, and he was promoted to Captain retroactive to February 6, 1792. His precautions taken on Corsica to safeguard his return to French military service had worked. Once again boldness and political astuteness had worked together to further Napoleon's career. Napoleon returned to Corsica in September of 1792, and was there when Louis XVI was executed on January 21, 1793. He attempted to gain power in Corsican politics, but a final break with Corsican patriot Paoli, who preferred English rather than French control of Corsica, forced him to return to France on June 11, 1793. He was stationed in Nice, where he obtained the rank of Captain of a shore battery. Many royalist officers had deserted or been executed, France was at war on several fronts, and officers of the quality of Napoleon were critical to the defense of La Patrie (the fatherland). The relationship between the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon is often misunderstood. Napoleon, who had made several earlier attempts at authorship, wrote a pamphlet that advocated support for the Jacobin government and a call to arms against outside invaders. This work, which took the form of a dialogue, decried the possibility of a civil war and took the side of the Montagnards in the National Assembly against the less radical Girondins and the Royalists. [10] The tract, Le Souper de Beaucaire (Supper at the Beaucaire [an inn]), impressed Augustin Robespierre, younger brother of Maximilien, who had it printed [11] Maximilien Robespierre had become the virtual dictator of France, and Augustin Robespierre, who was to become one of Napoleon's strongest supporters in the government, was critical in the early development of Napoleon's career. Toulon Not everyone in France supported the Jacobin government. In 1793 the city of Toulon revolted and admitted the British navy into its harbor. Napoleon had been assigned to join the Army of France in Italy but, as luck would have it, his duties took him to Toulon. There, with the support of Augustin Robespierre, now the "Representative of the People" in this area, Napoleon was appointed to a position of senior gunner. He replaced a man who had just been killed. He also met Antoine Salicetti, a member of the Convention (the legislative body of government) who had been sent to help retake Toulon. Robespierre and Salicetti became patrons of Napoleon, and with their support Napoleon was able to assert almost absolute control over military operations. Over a period of several months (during which he was promoted to Major) he succeeded (again, with his strong political support) in convincing a succession of commanding generals that he had the right plans for taking back the city. He insisted that rather than a frontal assault on the city, the key to victory was control of the heights called by the British "Little Gibraltar." His plan worked: the British were driven out and Toulon returned to government control. Napoleon had not only been the military brains behind this success, he was constantly in the thick of the action and in great danger. Indeed, he suffered a bayonet wound that could have cost him his leg. At St. Helena he said that his greatest personal danger occurred at Toulon and, during the first Italian Campaign in 1796, at Arcola. [12] At Toulon, Napoleon, even when in military command of an operation, had to deal with political interference. It was not uncommon for Deputies of the Assembly to appear on the scene and attempt to influence military action. At one point, they actually ordered some of Napoleon's guns into action before they were ready. On other occasions, they attempted to influence overall strategy. Napoleon, of course, had strong feelings on the matter: "Those blockheads of deputies wanted to attack and storm the town first; but I explained to them that it was very strong, and that we should lose many men; that the best way would be to make ourselves masters of the forts which commanded the harbour, and then the English would either be taken or be obliged to burn the greatest part of the fleet, and escape. My advice was taken; and the English, perceiving what would be the result, set fire to the ships and abandoned the town. If an ibeccio [south wind] had come on, they would have been all taken. It was Sydney Smith who set them on fire, and he would have burnt them all, if the Spaniards had behaved well. It was the finest fen d'artifice [fire-works] possible." [13] The entire siege of Toulon took some three months, but its success was a great victory for the Jacobin government, and it marked the first major foray into the limelight for Napoleon. On December 22 Napoleon was made a general de brigade and one of the greatest careers in history was launched. Napoleon was soon reassigned to the French Army in Italy, and be spent much of 1794 campaigning against Austrians. Upon the fall of Maxim Robespierre in the coup d'etat Thermidor (July 27, 1794), Napoleon was arrested and held at the Chateau d'Antibes. The government had had enough of the mass killings in "Reign of Terror," and Robespierre and brother Augustin, the infamous St. Just and others of the powerful Committee for Public Safety had been arrested and to the guillotine. Napoleon was accused of having proposed the reconstruction of what the citizens of Marseilles considered their Bastille (in reality an important military fort), and of treason in a secret mission to Genoa, [14] but his problem was his closeness to the recently executed Augustin Robespierre. Of his 15 days of house arrest, he spent time in study and the development of military ideas. Had he been closer Paris he might have met an untimely but he was instead released. His release was due partly to luck (not being sent to Paris for trial), but even more to his political foresight. He had written a letter to the French agent at Genoa tempering his support for Maximilien Robespierre with his aversion to tyranny. More importantly, his friendship with Salicetti ultimately worked to his favor [15] . Napoleon's career at this point became stagnant at best, and he was, in fact, largely unemployed until August 21, 1795, when he was appointed to the Bureau Topographique de Paris. Here he was assigned to the section reviewing the Italian campaign. Thus he was in Paris during the tumultuous period to come. Whiff of Grapeshot The French government, headed by the Directory of seven members, had lost a great deal of popularity, largely due to its efforts to keep itself in power. A new constitution had established a new Legislative Assembly, but the existing Convention decreed that two-thirds of the new representatives to the Legislative Assembly must come from the Convention's existing membership. By early October, the Convention was under siege by royalist sympathizers and elements of the Paris mob who were headquartered at the church St. Roch. They were supported by a large force of the National Guard. The Directory and the Convention were desperate to find a general to lead the defense of the government. Barras, a member of the Directory who had been charged with the Convention's defense, proposed to assign Napoleon the task, and presented him to the Convention late on the evening of October 4, 1795. Napoleon accepted the assignment with the words that now echo through the centuries: "General, I accept. But I warn you that once the sword is out of the scabbard I shall not sheath it again until order is restored." Napoleon was in complete command of the situation. The insurgents far outnumbered the defenders commanded by General Bonaparte. To improve the odds, Napoleon sent Captain Murat to procure cannon, which were then placed near the Tuileries Palace in such a way as to command all avenues of approach. The insurgents attacked, and with his famous "whiff of grapeshot" Napoleon crushed the revolt on 13 Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795). After defeating the royalists' last stand at St. Roch, Napoleon dispatched troops to disarrn the city and restore order. There is some dispute as to the causalities for this important episode. Chandler has suggested that there might have been as many as 600." [16] Napoleon, at St. Helena, had the following response to a question on the topic: "Very few, considering the circumstances. Of the people, there were about seventy or eighty killed, and between three and four hundred wounded; of the conventionalists, about thirty killed, and two hundred and fifty wounded. The reason there was so few killed, was, that after the first two discharges, I made the troops load with powder only, which had the effect of frightening the Parisians, and answered as well as killing them would have done. I made the troops, at first, fire ball, because to a rabble, who are ignorant of the effect of fire-arms, it is the worst possible policy to fire powder only in the beginning. For the populace after the first discharge, hearing a great noise, are a little frightened, but looking around them, and seeing nobody killed or wounded, pluck up their spirits, begin immediately to despise you, become doubly outrageous, and rush on without fear, and it is necessary to kill ten times the number that would have been done, had ball been used at first. For, with a rabble, everything depends upon the first impressions made upon them . . . . It is a mistaken piece of humanity, to use powder only at that moment, and instead of saving the lives of men, ultimately causes an unnecessary waste of human blood.". [17] Accepting an assignment which would lead to the slaying of Frenchmen had been yet another political gamble, where even in victory he could have earned the enmity of many. Once again, however the gamble paid off, and his career was enhanced. By the end of the month, he had been placed in command of the Army of the Interior. He was 26 and already at the peak of most careers. He married Josephine on March 9, 1796, and a few weeks later took command of the Army of Italy. His new army was ragtag demoralized, and short on just about everything. Yet from the very beginning he proved himself worthy of great things He brought with him what is often said to be one of the greatest collections of military minds serving together at one time. [18] It consisted of such luminaries as chief of staff Alexandre Berthier, and colonel aide-de-camp Joachim Murat, as well as Junot, Marmont, and his own brother Louis. His inspirational address to his troops is a classic: "Soldiers! You are hungry and naked the government owes you much, but these rocks, are admirable, but that brings you no glory.... I will lead you into the most fertile plains on earth. Rich provinces wealthy cities, all will be at you, disposal; there you will find honor, glory and riches.". [19] It was during this campaign that Napoleon claims to have first seen his great destiny. He wrote at St. Helena: "It was only on the evening of Lod [May 10, 1796] that I believed myself superior man, and that the ambition came to me of executing the great things which so far had been occupying my thoughts only as a fantastic dream." [20] In the space of one year he had completely defeated the Austrian army occupying Italy and had achieved the Peace of Campo Formio, which gained France some significant territory and peace with her last continental adversary. He also gained the release by the Austrians of General Lafayette. General Bonaparte was now established as a true national hero and perhaps her greatest soldier. More importantly, he had met his first complete military challenge with overwhelming success. He had brought glory and riches to France and great confidence to himself. The riches were probably more important to the Directory than the glory, as the government was (still) in great financial difficulty. Napoleon was politically astute enough to recognize this, and was careful to send a steady stream of riches to Paris. He also endeared himself to his men, not only through his great leadership and personality, but by paying them in hard currency for the first time in memory. Glory, however, also figured in his political and military strategy. Glory, of course, helps inspire one's troops to fight. Equally important, his victories gave him a degree of national popularity that both threatened the Directory and protected him from political harm. Of almost equal significance was Napoleon's establishment of the Cisalpine Republic. This, like the Treaty of Campo Formio, was far beyond the scope of his orders and constituted challenge to the Directory and, indeed the very structure of Europe. Ever expanding French influence beyond the "natural" borders, he ran the risk of continual war. Yet, once again the gamble paid political dividends, as I was seen by French citizens as a liberation of the oppressed and carrier of the Revolution to Europe. [21] Back in Paris, Napoleon was anxious for more action, and began to plan for the invasion of England. The Director meanwhile, was not interested in having an idle, popular General hanging around Paris for long. When Napoleon became convinced that an invasion of England was out of the question, both he and the Directory searched for another appropriate campaign. Talleyrand, whose scheming would be both a boon and a bane throughout Napoleon's career, suggested the ancient French dream of wounding England by conquering Egypt. [22] Both Napoleon and the Directory quickly approved the idea, and in May of 1798 Napoleon launched the Egyptian Campaign. The Battle of the Pyramids on July 21, 1798, was a great victory, but the destruction of his fleet at Aboukir Bay on August 2, 1798, left him isolated from France and ultimately prevented the total success of the campaign, which dragged on for the next year. Napoleon feared for his political fortunes in Paris and returned in October of 1799. His return was given a cool reception by the Directory, as he had technically deserted his army. The general populace, however, considered him a great hero. At any rate, the government, which was in chaos, was in no position to take action against a general who had the support of the army and of the people. France's enemies had formed the Second Coalition against her, and the internal affairs of the government were in turmoil. There had been a series of destabilizing coup d'etats as the Republicans attempted to strengthen their control over the government. The Revolution, to say nothing of the Nation, was in great danger. Stability was needed, and in the coup d'etat de Brumaire (November 9-10, 1799) Napoleon became one of three ruling Consuls. Sieyes and the other instigators of this latest coup d'etats needed a popular general to neutralize the army and inspire the people to support their new leaders. Napoleon was to have been their tool, but he quickly moved to consolidate his power. To seize power during such a period of instability was risky. This was, after all, just the latest in a string of governmental takeovers. Napoleon agonized over the decision: "It was a service that I did not like; but when I considered that if the convention was overturned, 1'e'tranger [the foreigner] would triumph; that the destruction of that body would seal the slavery of the country, and bring back an incapable and insolent race, those reflections and destiny decided that I should accept of it." [23] Secure in the knowledge that his army would support him and that he was a national hero, he convinced the rest of the government that only he could save the Nation and the Revolution. Yet now Napoleon's full political abilities were brought to bear. Secure in the knowledge that his army would support him and that he was a national hero, he convinced the rest of the government that only he could save the Nation and the Revolution. Indeed, he told Las Cases on St. Helena: "I closed the gulf of anarchy and cleared the chaos. I purified the Revolution. . . ." [24] In February, by a vote of 3 million to 1,500, the people of France elected him First Consul, and he effectively became the ruler of France. Rise to Power Napoleon's rise to power resulted from many factors. His determination, intelligence, and sheer force of will were certainly important characteristics. There can be no doubting that luck and the influence of powerful friends also played an important role. Of great importance was his willingness to take great risks political as well as military--and his ability to foresee the consequences of his actions. Yet perhaps more than anything else, Napoleon was a product of the Revolution and the turbulence brought about by a decade of instability, constant change, and war. Such a situation is ripe for the advancement of those who are willing to seize opportunities and explore them, and Napoleon proved capable of this from the very beginning. His career perhaps the greatest in history, distinguished by his ability to combine military and political courage and skill both military and political-into a form that propelled him to the very peaks power. Selected Bibliography Abbott, John S. C., The History of Napoleon Bonaparte. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, Published 1883 (New, enlarged version of the 18th edition), IV vols. Arnault, M. A., and C. L. I Panckoucke, Life and Campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte. Philadelphia Porter & Coates, n. d. New Edition illustrated, Two Volumes in One. Belloc, Hilaire, Napoleon Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Companies 1932. First Edition. Britt, Albert Sidney, The Wars of Napoleon. Wayne, NJ: Avery Publishing Group,1985. Chandler, David G., Napoleon. New York Saturday Review Press, 1973. Chandler, David G., Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1979. Gershoy, Leo, The French Revolution and Napoleon. New York: Appleton Century-Crofts, Inc., 1933. First edition Hazen, Charles D., The French Revolution and Napoleon. New York Henry Holt, 1917. First edition. Ireland, William Henry, The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. London: John Cumberland, 1828. Four Volumes. First Edition. Lanfrey, P., The History of Napoleon the First. London: Macmillan and Company, 1886. Four volumes. Las Cases, Count de, Memorial De Sainte Helene, Journal of the Private Life and Conversations of The Emperor Napoleon at Saint Helena. Boston: Well and Lilly, 1823, IV Vols. Ludwig, Emil, Napoleon. (Eden and Cedar Paul, trans). New York: Boni and Liveright, 1926. Markham, Felix Maurice Hippisley Napoleon and the Awakening of Europe London: The English Universities Pres Lte, 1954 (1965 edition). Napoleon. New York: F M. H. Markham, 1963. Napoleon 1, Emperor of the French,, Selection from the Letters and Despatches of the First Napoleon, with Explanatory Notes. Compiled by Captain The Honorable D. A. Binghamr London: Chapman and Hall, Limited 1884. First edition. O'Meara, Barry E., Napoleon in Exile; or, A Voice From St. Helena. The Opinions and Reflections of Napoleon on the Most Important Events in His Life and Government, in His Own Words Philadelphia: James Crissy, 1822, 1 Vols. Ratcliffe, Bertram, Prelude to Fame An Account of the Life of Napoleon Bonaparte from his Arrival in France and the Battle of Montenotte. London Frederick Warne, 1981. First edition. Scott, Sir Walter, The Life of Napoleon Buonaparte Emperor of the French, With A Preliminary View of the French Revolution, By the Author of "Waverley, " &c. Nine Volumes Edinburgh: Ballantyne and Co. for Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, & Co Edinburgh, 1827. First Edition. Sloan, William Milligan, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. New York: The Century Company, 1896, IV Vols. Warwick, Charles F., Napoleon and the End of the French Revolution Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co 1910. First edition. Footnotes [1] Arnault, M. A., and C. L. F. Panckoucke, Life and Campaigns of Napoleon Bonaparte. Philadelphia: Porter & Coates, n. d. New Edition, Illustrated, Two Volumes in One, p. 16. [2] Abbott, John S. C., The History of Napoleon Bonaparte. New York and London: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1883 (New, enlarged version of the 1855 edition), Vol. 1, p. 34. [3] Chandler, David G., Napoleon. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1973, pp. 18-18. [4] Sloan, William Milligan, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. New York: The Century Company, 1896, Vol. 1, p. 89. [5] Sloan, Vol. 1, pp. 90-92 [6] Sloan, Vol. 1, pp. 93-97. [7] Abbott, Vol. 1, p. 44 [8] Abbott, Vol. 1, pp. 45-46 [9] Abbott, Vol. 1, p. 46. [10] Markham, Felix Maurice Hippisley, Napoleon. New York: F. M. H. Markham, 1963, p. 24. [11] See Chandler (1973), p. 20 and Sloan (Vol 1), p. 131. For a good summary of Le Souper de Beaucaire, see Sloan, Vol. 1, pp. 129-131. [12] O'Meara, Barry E., Napoleon in Exile; or, A Voice From St. Helena. The Opinions and Reflections of Napoleon on the Most Important Events in His Life and Government, in His Own Words. Philadelphia: James Crissy, 1822, Vol. II p. 145. [13] O'Meara, Vol. 1, p. 33. [14] Chandler, David G., The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1966, p. 34. [15] . Sloan, Vol. 1, pp. 150-152. [16] Chandler, David G., Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1979, p. 111. [17] O'Meara, Vol. 1, p. 284. [18] Chandler, (1966), pp. 55-57 [19] Britt, Albert Sidney, The Wars of Napoleon. Wayne, NJ: Avery Publishing Group,1985,p.6. [20] Chandler, (1966), p. 84. [21] See Markham, Felix, Napoleon and the Awakening of Europe. London: The English Universities Press Ltd., 1954 (1965 Edition), pp. 29-33, Markham (1963) pp. 49-54, and Ludwig, Emil Napoleon. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1926, pp. 81-84, 100-107. [22] Chandler (1973), p. 41. [23] O'Meara, Vol. II, p. 228. The French word l'etranger is in the text. [24] Las Cases, Count de. Mimorial Sainte Helene, Journal of the Private Life and Conversations of the Emperor Napoleon at Saint Helena. Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1823, Vol. II Pt. 3, p. 102. Back to Empire, Eagles, & Lions Table of Contents Vol. 2 No. 7 Back to EEL List of Issues Back to MagWeb Master Magazine List © Copyright 1994 by Emperor's Headquarters This article appears in MagWeb (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. 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