Elsewhere in the present issue are two articles dealing with cavalry. These are: (1) Les Cuirassiers du Roi, the First Consul's Cuirassiers and the French Cavalry Reform of 1803 and (2) Prussian Uniforms of the 1806 Campaign, Part II, The Cavalry: Cuirassiers and Dragoons.
Both articles bring up the question of "medium cavalry". The question of "medium cavalry" has previously been discussed many times in the old EE&L (vol. 1) and boils down to a simple point. It appears to be an established tradition for some English language historians to classify continental dragoons, especially French dragoons, as "medium cavalry." [1]
Yet, there is absolutely nothing in French or other continental countries sources -- primary or secondary -- to justify the classification of "medium cavalry". At best, the dragoons are sometimes classified as "mixed cavalry," [2] which relates to their mission rather than the size of their horses as the terminology "medium cavalry" suggests.
Calling continental dragoons "medium cavalry" appears to be a long accepted practice by some British and other English language historians. Two most interesting passages using this terminology are from Christopher Duffy, The Army of Frederick the Great. The first, p.93, states: "... The troopers of the Cuirassiers (heavy cavalry) and the Dragoons (medium cavalry) were drawn principally from the best material .... etc."
Then, p. 93-94, Christopher Duffy continues: "... Thus even Frederick had to insist on a minimum height of 5ft 5in for his cuirassiers and dragoons, and in practice the average height turned out to be noticeable larger...Frederick decreed that cuirassier horses should stand at least 5ft 5in tall and the dragoon horses at 5ft 2in, only the hussars being allowed to accept smaller horses .... The mount par excellence of the cuirassiers and dragoons was the powerful native horse of north Germany..."
In the light of the above, Frederick's cuirassiers and dragoons appear to be mounted on horses of about the same size. Therefore, the classification of heavy and medium seems to have nothing to do with the size of the horses but apparently with the origin of the arm. Again, we quote from Duffy, p.96: "... The cuirassiers were the direct descendants of the armoured knights of medieval time... and pp. 97-98: ... However, like most weapons of war, the dragoons became subject to a process of up-rating over the years, and in Prussia old Frederick William converted
them into a force that was fit to enter an open cavalry battle in the company of the armoured cuirassiers."
We do agree that, in Prussia as well as in other countries, the dragoons became subject to a process of up-rating over the years, and, in Prussia and elsewhere, they were converted into a force that was fit to enter an open cavalry battle in the company of the armoured cuirassiers. The process continued after Frederick's time not only in the Prussian army but also in other armies.
The two arms converged so much that, as shown by the article on Prussian cuirassiers and dragoons in this issue, in 1806, Prussian cuirassiers and dragoons were classified as heavy cavalry according to the primary sources consulted. In that article, it is also noted that nowhere in Prussian sources can anyone find dragoons classified as medium cavalry.
The fact that Prussian dragoons were heavy cavalry is acknowledged by Philip Haythornthwaite, in Weapons and Equipments of the Napoleonic Wars, Blandford Press, 1979. On p,35, he says: "... Heavy cavalry included cuirassiers, "Garde du Corps" (German and Russian), British Household Cavalry, dragoon guards and dragoons, Grenadiers A Cheval, Gendarmerie d'Elite and Carabiniers (French); Prussian dragoons; and during the Revolutionary Wars regiments simply tiled "Horse"."
Then Philip Haythornthwaite continues with the following: "Dragoons were medium cavalry (one weight lighter than the heavies), despite their original function as mounted infantry who rode into action and dismounted to fight. Though France employed dismounted dragoons, their function during the greater part of the Napoleonic Wars was as bona fide cavalry."
The only point of (mild) disagreement with the above is the classification of dragoons as "medium cavalry". If the French dragoons in the Napoleonic wars were bona fide cavalry, why not classify them with the cavalry proper like the French sources, that is as heavy cavalry since they were expected to carry on the same missions?
In French documents, we find the dragoons classified as "cavalry" for two main reasons. The first one is because of their origin as mounted infantry and the second one is because of their special training which included infantry drilling for dismounted actions as well as cavalry training for mounted action. Consequently, they were capable of being used as mobile firepower or for shock actions. However, they generally acted with the heavy cavalry and gradually, the latter role prevailed. [3]
The following is an excerpt from Bertin, La Campagne de 1812 (courtesy of George Nafziger,) which uses data exclusively from the French archives (Archives Guerre, Vincennes and Archives Nationales) to describe the organization of the French cavalry in 1812, just prior to the invasion of Russia in 1812:
In the above, there is no medium cavalry classification. Furthermore, in 1812, the dragoons are classified as heavy cavalry which is not surprising considering the size of their horses in 1802 and 1812. Bertin continues:
To be complete, we will continue with Bertin's remarks on the above table:
Granted, the French dragoon horses were a shade lighter than the cuirassiers, but is that enough to classify them as "medium cavalry"?
The Imperial Guard had its own remount standards and Lachouque in Napoleon et la Garde Imperials [4] gives the following sizes for the Guard cavalry:
Thus, if we compare the size of the horses of the Guard Horse Grenadiers, who were undoubtedly heavy cavalry even if they did not wear the cuirass, with that of the Line Dragoons we find that their horses are of similar size: 14.9 to 15.2 hands for the Guard Heavies versus 15 to 15.3 hands for the Line Dragoons. In this case, the Line Dragoons had horses slightly larger than the Guards Heavies! Taking that point as justification, can we call the Dragoons "medium cavalry" or, better yet, applying the same criteria should we also classify the Guard Horse Grenadiers as "medium cavalry? There is no doubt that both had horses which were smaller than those of the cuirassiers but the dragoons mounted horses similar in size, or larger, than those of the heavies of the Guard Cavalry.
However, was the size of horses the only criteria to determine the classification of cavalry units? Let us compare the size of some of the Guard horses. The Horse Grenadiers had horses ranging from 14.9 to 15.2 hands and the Chasseurs it cheval from 14.6 to 15.2 hands. So we could conclude that the Guard Horse Grenadiers and the Chasseurs a cheval were heavies! But we know that the Horse Grenadiers were classified as heavies and the Chasseurs as light. So could it be that classification has little to do with the size of horses?
Let us now take a look at the British cavalry. Bryan Fosten in Wellington's Light Cavalry, Osprey, Men-at-Arms Series, London 1982, p. 25 tells us: Unlike French hussars and chasseurs, who are referred to as riding small horses often no larger than ponies, the Inspection Reports reveal that the horses of the British Light Dragoon and hussar regiments differed only slightly from those ridden by the "heavies". For example, the report on the 10th Hussars from 1813 lists the sizes of horses:
Then in Wellington's Heavy Cavalry , Osprey, Men-at-Arms Series, London 1982, p. 25, the same author gives the size of the horses ridden by the "heavies": ...the 2nd North British Dragoons (Scots Grey) were remarkably and uniformly well mounted .... Interestingly, a list of the size of the horses of this regiment was taken, as follows:
As the above data (traceable to primary sources) shows, horse size in British service had nothing to do with cavalry classification but that classification was determined by the theoretical mission expected from the cavalry units. That was not limited to the British cavalry but, as seen above, applied also to the French Guard cavalry.
Until 1812, French cavalry classification can be somewhat confusing and misleading (see the Cuirassier article in this issue). For instance, in 1763, the French cavalry included the Maison du Roi, the Gendarmes, the cavalry, the carabiniers, the dragoons and the hussars. More interesting was that with the exception of the Maison du Roi and the Gendarmes, the rest of the cavalry was considered as light cavalry. That includes the hussars, the dragoons, the carabiniers and the socalled cavalry, which was in fact the battle cavalry who in 1763 wore the cuirass!
A regulation on remounts of the cavalry dated October 28, 1802 (that is before the decision to completely eliminate the existing cavalry regiments and replace them with cuirassiers) spells out the size of the horses: The cuirassiers' and carabiniers' horses shall be purchased in Germany preferably in Mecklenburg; they shall be between 4 and 5 years of age, and their price can not exceed 500 francs. That of the cavalry and of the dragoons [underline mine, MHR] will be drawn from the departments of Calvados, Orne, Manche, Seine Inferieure, and Eure [All departments of the province of Normandy, JAL], their size shall be between 1.543 meters and 1.583 meters [which translates to about 15 1/4 to 15 1/2 hands, MHR];
The above regulation brings up another very important point. On October 28, 1802, Cuirassiers, Cavalry and Dragoons were to be mounted on the same size horses: between 15 1/4 to 15 1/2 hands! If we take only the horse size into consideration (aside from their origin), Bonaparte did not see much difference between Cuirassiers, Cavalry and Dragoons. All three "types" of cavalry were expected to perform the same battle function, that of the heavy cavalry. Yet in 1803, certainly because of the old Royal classification of cavalry, the French cavalry was still classified as follows:
That classification did not reflect reality and it as later corrected, taking into consideration the fact that dragoons were now (and had been for sometime) true heavy cavalry:
At the beginning of 1812, the whole of the French cavalry, excluding the Guard which formed a special corps of its own, included:
Note that in all these classifications and regulations we don't find any mention of "medium cavalry".
The classification of 1812 illustrates that the mission of the line cavalry regiments was clear cut and that much before 1812. In 1806, Cuirassiers, Carabiniers and most of the dragoon regiments served in cavalry reserve formations mostly for shock actions. The dragoons, in addition, because of their origin, could be used as mobile firepower, but acted in mostly with the Reserve Cavalry. Later, in 180809, with the exception of 6 regiments stationed in Italy, the others were sent to Spain. Only the former were sent to Russia, in 1812. The light cavalry was dispersed among the different army corps and its function clearly defined. It was to be used for reconnaissance, protection of the corps, pursuit at the end of the battle, etc. which does not mean it was suited to other forms of mounted warfare including charges on the battlefield.
The light cavalry not incorporated in the Corps was concentrated in the Cavalry Reserve with the Cuirassiers and Dragoons. [5] During the Campaign of Russia, the Reserve Cavalry was organized in 4 different Corps capable of considerable independent action. [6]
Were the French dragoon horses smaller than the horses of other heavy cavalries? And how were dragoons classified in other armies?
AUSTRIAN CAVALRY
The Austrian cavalry has always been noted for its worthy combat ability. In 1809, its 35 regiments consisted of 8 cuirassier, 6 dragoon, 6 chevauleger, 12 hussar and 3 Uhlan regiments. The cuirassiers and the dragoons were officially classified as heavy cavalry [7] and has such served in Reserve cavalry formations. The chevaulegers, hussars and uhlans were designed as light cavalry and used as such.
MacClellan The Armies of Europe, Philadelphia, 1861, gives the minimum Austrian horse sizes as follows:
Von Angeli in Erzherzog Carl, Vienna, 1897, vol. 5., p. 18 confirms the above: The size of remounts for the chevaulegers were fixed between 14 hands 3 to 4 inches (155 to 158 centimeters), that for the hussars between 14 hands 2 and 3 inches (152 to 155 centimeters).
No size is given by von Angeli for the heavy cavalry, but in 1855, the horses had not changed since the Napoleonic period.
RUSSIAN CAVALRY
In Russian service in 1812, there were 6 cuirassier regiments but 2 dragoon regiments were converted to cuirassiers, raising the total to 8 [8]. There were 30 dragoon regiments having the same organization as the cuirassier regiments. [9] Note, that the cuirassiers, dragoons, uhlans, hussars, etc. were also drilled as infantry and expected to fight in dismounted actions.
Zwenguitov, in L'Armee Russe, gives us the size of the Russian horses in arsines which translate as:
From the above, it can be seen that the Russian cavalry did not mount huge horses. Yet, if we believe Wilson: "The Russian cavalry is certainly the best mounted of any on the continent .... The heavy Russian horses are matchless for a union of size, strength, activity and strength". The fact remains that the Russian cuirassiers were not mounted on large horses. Were they classified as "medium cavalry" for that reason?
We have briefly surveyed the size of horses in the armies of the primary continental antagonists. In addition, we have seen no reference classifying continental dragoons as "medium cavalry" as some sources mentioned above have led us to believe. After all, the Austrian, French and Prussian dragoons mounted horses that were of the same size as the "heavies" of the French Imperial Guard. In addition, our survey shows that in the Austrian, Prussian and French service, the dragoons were classified as heavy cavalry and performed as such. As noted by Philip Haythornthwaite, all were bonafide cavalry for all practical purposes.
The continental dragoons kept their special uniforms because of their origin and in French service, were capable of dismounted action. This is a subject that we will cover in future issues and for that reason, were a slightly different breed of cavalry. All continental dragoons were expected to handle any sort of mounted action and generally acted as or with the heavy cavalry. Gradually, the latter role predominated.
Dragons et Guides, Commandant Bucquoy, reprint Grancher, Paris, 1981, p. 10.
[1] Among the authors quoted, some of the other historians classifying dragoons as "medium cavalry" we find Tylden, Major G. Horses and Saddlery, 1965. Ogo Pericolli, The Armies at Waterloo, Sphere Books Ltd. London, 1973, etc.
At the beginning of 1812, the whole of the French cavalry, excluding the Guard which formed a special corps of its own, included: Heavy cavalry (Grosse Cavalerie in the French text), 14 regiments of cuirassiers, 2 of carabiniers, 24 of dragoons. Light cavalry (Cavalerie legere in the French text), 28 regiments of chasseurs, 11 of hussars and 9 of chevau-leger lanciers. A total of 88 regularly organized regiments which did not include the provisional regiments, etc.
The horses had to be at least 5 years old and their size had to be:
(a) Carabiniers and cuirassiers: maximum 1.597 m (61.87") or 15.7 hands minimum 1.556 m (61.25") or 15.3 hands
(b) Dragoons and light artillery: maximum 1.556 m (61.25") or 15.3 hands minimum 1.529 m (60.2") or 15 hands
(c) Chasseurs and hussars: maximum 1.529 m (60.2") or 15 hands minimum 1.488 m (58.58") or 14.6 hands
(d) Chevau-legers: maximum 1.502 m (59.13") or 14.7 hands minimum 1.461 m (57.5 ") or 14.3 handsThe size of the cuirassiers' horses had been slightly increased from the previous minimum and maximum of 15 1/4 hands and 15 1/2 hands to 15.3 and 15.7 hands and the dragoons slightly decreased from 15 1/4 and 15 1/2 hands to 15 hands and 15.3 hands, a difference practically negligible.
Horse Grenadiers 14.9 to 15.2 hands
Chasseurs a cheval 14.6 to 15.2 hands
Dragoons of the Guard Not Available
Chevau-legers 14.4 to 14.9 hands16 hands 4 horses
15 1/2 hands 74 horses
15 hands 138 horses
14 1/2 hands 83 horses
299 horses16 hands 57 horses
15 1/2 hands 256 horses
15 hands 340 horses
14 1/2 hands 55 horses
708 horsesMore on the Sizes of Horses in the French Army
Cavalry (cavalerie in French text): carabiniers and cuirassiers,
Light cavalry (cavalerie legere in French text):
dragoons, chasseurs a cheval and hussars.Heavy cavalry (Grosse cavalerie in the French text), 14 regiments of cuirassiers, 2 of carabiniers, 24 of dragoons.
Light cavalry (Cavalerie legere in the French text), 28 regiments of chasseurs, I I of hussars and 9 of chevau-leger lanciers.On the Size of Horses in Other Continental Cavalries
Heavy cavalry 15 hands 1 inch
Light cavalry 14 hands 1 inch
Type Minimum Maximum Cuirassiers 14.35 hands 14.85 hands Dragoons and lancers 14.1 hands 14.35 hands Hussars 13.85 hands 14.35 hands CONCLUSION
SOME OF ADDITIONAL SOURCES ARE:
Misc. notes from French archives
Historique du 7e Dragons, Paris, 1909
ENDNOTES
[2] See Oukouneff, Considerations sur les grandes operations de la campagne de 1812 en Russie, Bruxelles, 1841.
[3] Which does not mean that their dismounted actions ceased.
[4] Napoleon et la Garde Imperiale is the original French text that was translated by Ann Brown into Anatomy of Glory. The original French edition raises many details omitted in the translation.
[5] Colonel Elting, in his outstanding book on Napoleon's army Swords Around the Throne, (The Free Press, New York, 1988) p.232, etc. illustrates very well the different missions expected of the French cavalry. The book is highly recommended.
[6] For instance, Grouchy's remarkable 100-mile raid in July 1812, seizing towns, depots and forcing a crossing of the Dnieper River while maintaining contact between Davout's and Eugene's Corps.
[7] Krieg 1809 (official Austrian history of the 1809 war) published by the Kriegsgeschichliche Abteilung des k, und k. Kriegsarchiv, 6 vol. Vienna 1907-1910.
[8] Nafziger, Napoleon's Invasion of Russia, p.75.
[9] The cuirassier and dragoon regiments had 5 squadrons each. By the end of 1812, a seventh and eighth squadron had been raised. During the same time, a sixth squadron was added to each of the dragoon regiments.
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