The conflict which has become known to the modern reader as the Mexican-American War, began in the spring of 1846 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on May 19th, 1848. The events leading up to this conflict of arms dated back much further, and may be said to begin in the 1820's. U.S. Troops attacking the western gate of Mexico City - the San Gosme garita. - Library of Congress. In 1821, Mexico announced to the Spanish government that its sovereign authority would no longer be recognized and therefore, claimed its independence from Spain. Prior events strengthened the Mexican claim and so, with little to be done, the Spanish Viceroy, O'Donoju, agreed and signed the Treaty of Cordoba. The early years of the new government were not tranquil, however. Several changes in governmental control were made, some of a bloodless nature and some less sanitary. Additionally, an invasion force of Spanish troops landed at Tampico on August 18, 1829 and made an effort to regain control of their lost colony. The invasion was defeated by General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna on September 11, 1829. This impressive military accomplishment thrust Santa Anna onto the pedestal of a Mexican national hero, a position that he was to use frequently to his own advantage. During this period of national growing pains, the various Mexican governments realized the importance of the vast, uncolonized area north of the Rio Grande known as Texas. This large and fertile area was ripe for development, but Mexican officials had difficulty in obtaining Mexican citizens eager enough to relocate into the beautiful, yet remote, wild and untamed Mexican frontier. As the region was so far removed from the settled portions of mainstream Mexican society, governmental control, regulation and protection was almost non-existent. But the government officials still longed for the area to be settled and begin to assist in shoring up a faltering economy. A second alternative presented itself to the government officials. By offering American settlers at least 640 acres of prime Texas land and the promise of tax free living for six years, the Mexican authorities hoped to entice American colonists into their country. Additionally, the settlers were required to adopt the Roman Catholic faith and swear allegiance to the Mexican government. The incentives proved sufficient for many who turned their backs to their homes in the United States and traveled to Texas to start fresh. "Gone to Texas" was an often seen sign hung upon vacant homes in rural districts of the American states. It was hoped that these American colonists would not only aid in the prosperity of Mexico, but that they would intermingle with the Mexican people and be absorbed into the Mexican culture. Many of the first citizens entered the Mexican territory in good faith, but others, men of adventurous spirits and restless natures, found the frequently changing Mexican government easy prey to unconventional and inappropriate behavior. These wild manners caused the Mexican government to keep a close eye on the new settlements springing up in the Texas territory. The Mexican officials found that the great majority of the American settlers were not intermingling with the native population but were forming very distinct Americanized communities and were developing the distinctly separate identity of "Texicans". It was further realized that because of the isolated nature of these settlements, little governmental control was exerted to enforce the provisions of the settlement agreements. Changing Attitudes As the Mexican governments changed, so too did the attitudes of these governments. Progressively, the Mexican authorities became more hardline in their dealings with the Texas residents. In an attempt to stem the tide of immigration, President Bustamante urged the Mexican Congress to close off the border with the United States against further colonization and restrict trade with the United States. In 1830, severe laws were passed to enforce these suggestions. Troops were sent to enforce the new laws, but it is said that the commander of these troops, General Mier y Teran, unable to stop the flood and frustrated in the attempt, committed suicide. Affairs between the Texas settlers and the Mexican government declined steadily. In 1833, requests were made from the Texas residents that they be given full Mexican statehood and be separated from the State of Coahuila. Part of the explanation given was the need for a capitol closer to their homes for transactions with the Mexican government. The Mexican officials refused to listen and jailed the Texas representatives. The declining relations and a new Mexican Constitution which further reduced the individual power of the Mexican states brought the Texas settlements to a point of near open rebellion. Elected in 1833 to the position of President, Santa Anna further reduced government tolerance for the Texas situation. Additional troops were sent to the area and the arrest of Texas citizens for trivial offenses was commonplace. Escalation of confrontations occurred on both sides until eventually a claim of Texas independence was made. What followed has been recorded as the Texas War of Independence and is most notable for the heroic defense of the Alamo against the assaulting Mexican forces under Santa Anna. On April 21, 1836, the Mexican army under Santa Anna was defeated at the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign an acknowledgement of Texas independence. Sent with a Texas delegation to the President of the United States, Andrew Jackson, Santa Anna assisted in negotiating American recognition of the new Republic of Texas. Although the existence of Texas seemed assured, it proved to be far more complicated. Refusing to recognize the new republic or the treaty that had been signed by Santa Anna, the Mexican government threatened war with any power who attempted to annex the Republic of Texas as their own. Continuing border fights plagued the development of friendly relations between Mexico and Texas. And although limited military expeditions were launched from both sides of the border into the other's territory, no major martial inroads were made. Both sides were apparently content to peck here and there at the other's border towns. Likewise, tensions began to develop between Mexico and the United States. Mexican feelings that the Texas Revolution was in some way supported by the United States government were not completely without foundation. At least a tacit approval of U.S. volunteers rushing to the Texas banner appears to have been shown. Arms and supplies also had been furnished to the Texas insurgents from various cities and political organizations from within the states. As early as 1837, efforts were being made by American political figures to push for the annexation of Texas into the union. Santa Anna 1838 saw the return of Santa Anna to the limelight after two years of disgrace due to the Texas treaty. In what is often called the "Pastry War", French warships bombarded the City of Vera Cruz for unpaid damages owed to French citizens as a result of a previous Mexican revolution. To further up the ante, French marines and naval landing parties entered the city and fighting in the streets occurred between the French and Mexican forces under Santa Anna. During this encounter, Santa Anna lost his left leg when it was struck by a French cannon ball. The French were defeated, however, and Santa Anna was again raised to the status of a national hero. In honor of his sacrifice, the leg was preserved and enshrined as a national treasure commemorating his bravery. Other incidents heightened the already existing tensions between the United States and Mexico. American shipping was delayed and naval officers insulted. Foreigners in California were beaten, jailed and then illegally exiled. Texas troops and freebooters made raids over the border stealing horses and other loot. And there remained an outstanding debt owed to the United States by the Mexican government for losses suffered during Mexico's revolution. The financial matter was turned over to an international commission headed by the King of Prussia at the approval of both countries. The commission began in 1841 and in 1843 a finding was made in favor of the United States wherein an award of two million dollars was to be paid in installments to the U.S. by the Mexican government. Three of the twenty installments were paid and the remainder allowed to lapse. Mexico was not the only problem that presented itself to U.S. politicians in those years, however. A continuing debate had existed between England and the U.S. over the Oregon boundary. "Fifty-four forty or fight!" was the slogan of the Democrats in the political arena. Fearing that the United States may have potential enemies on two borders, President Tyler made a new effort to annex Texas. This attempt also failed because of a Congress unsure of the potential risks involved in the delicate slave/ free state balance. The 1844 Presidential election was the election of James K. Polk who rightly estimated the public opinion on the border disputes. His slogan, "All of Oregon, all of Texas", struck the fancy of the American voting public and Polk easily won the election. Few doubted or questioned the attitude of the American people on the border issues. On March 1, 1845, Congress invited Texas to become a state in the union; March 4th, President Polk took office and three weeks later, the Republic of Mexico broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. Military preparations began in Mexico and political saber rattling filled letters to Washington from Mexico City. It seemed apparent that neither side actually wanted war, but nationalistic pride would not allow compromise on either country's position. Taylor made one further attempt to calm the storm with Mexico when he sent John Slidell to Mexico City as representative of the United States government. The United States government, Slidell informed Mexican officials, was prepared to offer thirty million dollars for the purchase of California and New Mexico. Slidell returned home, his mission a failure. The Mexican position was simple. As the treaty signed by then President Santa Anna had been done without the ratification of the Mexican Congress, no treaty surrendering sovereignty over Texas existed. If Texas was not legally independent, the United States was over-stepping its authority in annexing property that did in fact belong to Mexico. Additionally, there was a dispute as to the southern border of the area to be annexed. Texas and therefore, the United States, claimed that the southern most border of the Texas holding was the Rio Grande River. Mexico, on the other hand, claimed that even if there was a Republic of Texas to be annexed by the United States, its southern border was not the Rio Grande but the Rio Nueces River approximately one-hundred miles further north. In support of her claim, Mexico presented several treaties and land sale contracts as evidence. Several sources indicate that the Mexican claim as to the border was the stronger of the two. Polk, anticipating the possibility of open hostilities, dispatched Brevet Brigadier General Zachary Taylor with a small force of regulars to Corpus Cristi on the Texas coast. This force, variously known as the Army of Obeservation or the Army of Occupation, spent eight months drilling and training in preparation for the fast approaching hostilities. With this force numbering approximately 3600 troops, it represented over one-half of the complete regular military establishment of the United States of America. When all was prepared and in order, Taylor's force established a supply base at Point Isabella and proceeded into the interior of Texas. Taylor's destination was for a point opposite Matamoras on the Rio Grande River. Taylor's advance met with little hostile action. On March 20th, 1846, Taylor's force encountered a small cavalry detail sent to deliver communications from General Mejia of the Mexican army. The communication was a proclamation which advocated a call to arms of all the people of the country and open aggressive hostility towards the invading "Norte Americanos". Taylor acknowledged receipt and continued on his line of march. Aside from several other threatening communications delivered to Taylor from the Mexican command, no serious hostilities yet presented themselves. Occasional ambushes of American troops did result in parties of ones and twos being captured or killed, but it is unclear if these occurred as a result of Mexican military action or were the acts of bandits and rancheros who may have roamed the area. Shortly after Taylor's arrival at Matamoras, certain military encounters occurred that subsequently led to Congress declaring war on the Republic of Mexico on May 13th, 1846. The gathering clouds of war that had collected upon the United States-Mexican border had finally burst. The results of that cloudburst would be two years of war that would ultimately greatly alter the complexion of North American and decades of international relations between the two republics. A popular slogan of the 1840's was gleaned from an expansionist magazine and was heard nationwide; it stated that it was America's "Manifest Destiny to overspread the continent". This popularly held opinion consequently produced another slogan that was voiced by American soldiers throughout the war, "Ho, for the Halls of Montezuma". Back to Table of Contents -- Courier Vol. IX No. 1 Back to Courier List of Issues Back to Master Magazine List © Copyright 1989 by The Courier Publishing Company. This article appears in MagWeb.com (Magazine Web) on the Internet World Wide Web. Other articles from military history and related magazines are available at http://www.magweb.com