There were a number of differences in the art of warfare as it was practised by the US Army's two main opponents in the Pony Wars; the Plains Indians and the Apache. The Apache will be considered separately in another article, here we are concerned with the tribes living further to the North, on the Great Plains proper.

Plains Indian warfare was highly irregular, involving skirmishing and raiding. Western concepts of total war were completely alien to Indian understanding. To them war was primarily a matter of honour; the result of a single battle would be regarded as settling an issue, hence the tribes' habit of going home after one encounter. The idea of completely overthrowing and conquering an opponent was rarely grasped, putting the Indians at a clear disadvantage against their resolute and ruthless white opponents.

Also rare was co-operation between Indian tribes; many Indians were prepared to ally with the whites against rivals.

War was waged with great cruelty on both sides. Noncombatants of either race could expect little mercy, and the controversial practice of scalping, whatever its origins, was carried out by both sides. Not all tribes initially practised it, and some may in fact have copied their white enemies, though the custom was refined to the degree that many tribes had their own distinctive styles of scalping their victims. The belief behind scalping was that the scalp was an extension of the soul, and so its removal destroyed the spirit of the dead man. It was therefore the ultimate act of vengeance as well as a visible demonstration of the prowess of the warrior.

Between 1866 and 1875, in the first phase of the Pony Wars, there were some 200 encounters, mostly skirmishes involving a handful of combatants, between whites and their Indian opponents, mainly at that stage the Sioux. The years 1876 -1887 saw a similar number, though during this phase the emphasis gradually shifted to the Apache Wars of the South West.

Plains Indians

The Plains Indians did not appear on the prairies until the late 18th century, when the complex of tribes later to be given the generic title of "Sioux" were driven out of the great forests to the east by the Chippewas. Moving on to the plains, they adopted a form of society based around two animals; the horse and the buffalo. The buffalo became the mainstay of Indian life. Its grwat herds, counted in their millions, provided the tribes with almost everything needed for their existence; food, clothing, tepis, and even, in the shape of their dung, fuel for fires. Hence came the Indians' horror at the wanton destruction of the herds by the encroaching whites. The horse provided a means of transport in peace and a vital aid in war.

The Plains Indians included some 95 sub-tribes, forming about a dozen major units, most of whose names as we now know them being derived from ones given by the French. Examples are the Sioux ( who called themselves Kahota), the Cheyennes, Osages, Pawnees Commanches, Kiowas, Crow and Utes. The tribes lacked any formal systems of government, consisting of numerous separate bands, each with a chief who himself had little real power except his skills in persuasion. Major decisions would be made by a Council of War, and various "societies" also had considerable influence. These undertook various roles in tribal society, including hunting, policing and war. One of the most famous were the Cheyenne "dog soldiers", made up of the best warriors.

Dreams and visions had an important role in Indian society, hence the influence of shamans or "medicine men" such as Sitting Bull of the Sioux. Spiritual considerations had an influence on the clothing worn in battle. The dress of a warrior might vary from nothing at all to full ceremonial regalia. An example is the "war bonnet" beloved of the makers of "Western" films. THe feathers from which these bonnets were made (by the wearers themselves) had individual significance according to their type. An untrimmed feather stood for a man whom the wearer had killed in battle; a flat trimmed-feather represented a man whose throat the wearer had cut; a split feather marked a wound suffered in battle. The wearing of a war-bonnet was a privilege accorded only to the bravest and most successful of warriors, who in return were supposed never to ask for mercy in battle. Chiefs were normally, though not always, war-bonnet wearers, and not all wearers were chiefs.

Weapons

The weapons carried by the Plains Indians varied widely. As the tribes had no manufacturing capacity, all firearms had to be acquired, either in battle, by theft, by trade or as gifts from the Government. As a result a great range were carried, including muzzle-loaders, shot guns, rifles, revolvers and carbines. It was not unusual for warriors to be better armed than their regular army opponents, but Indian firearms were frequently in bad condition, as the average warrrior seldom cleaned or serviced his weapon, preferring to throw it away and obtain another.

The most famous Indian weapon was the bow. These were usually made of wood, and about three feet long. They were extremely accurate at 100 yards, and could be effective at up to 150 yards in skilled hands, so that in combat they were regarded as at least the equal of the revolver. They were also extremely effective when fired from horseback.

Warriors also carried lances of 12-15 feet in length, usually decorated with feathers or scalps. Another feature of Indian warfare was the coup stick, which was used to gain honour by touching an enemy in battle. The well-known tomahawks were by this stage more usually metal axes or hatchets supplied by white traders, as were the warriors' knives. Small round shields, commonly made of hardened buffalo skin, were also carried.

Indian tactics were unique and highly individual. In battle each warrior basically followed his (or her - women warriors were not unknown) devices. Rapid movement, making use of horses to carry out fast advances and retreats was a key feature of Indian warfare. Once they had led their men into battle, the chiefs generally left them to their own devices. Whenever possible, pitched battles tended to be avoided, the Plains Indians preferring to make use of ambush, night attacks, and stealth.

War was regarded as an opportunity to gain honour and demonstrate courage, often by acts of foolhardy bravado. It was not an efficent way of opposing an advanced technological opponent with superior resources, though it is fair to say the the Plains Indians were ultimately defeated as much by epidemics such as smallpox, the destruction of the buffalo and their own divisions as by direct military action.

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