The American Civil War was approaching its third bloody year before field fortifications came into regular use. With battlefield tactics resulting in incredible bloodshed, troops and forward­thinking leaders began to find ways to provide better cover. Sure, fortified positions existed, but few earthworks were erected by troops as a regular battlefield practice.

This all changed during the campaigns of late 1862 and early 1863. We see some Confederate units erecting earthworks at Fredericksburg, and both armies erected field fortifications at Chancellorsville. Fieldworks also saw limited use at Gettysburg and Chickamauga. "In the winter of 1863-64, soldiers on both sides of the American Civil War learned the value of temporary field entrenchments. It did not result from any articulated shift in tactical doctrine, but rather seems to have emerged out of a spontaneous recognition by veteran troops that to dig was to survive." [1]

As the 1864 campaigning season began, field fortifications became the norm in both Georgia and Virginia. Grant, commenting afterward about the Overland Campaign of May-June 1864, observed of the Army of the Potomac that " in every change of position or halt for the night, whether confronting the enemy or not, the moment arms were stacked the men entrenched themselves. For this purpose they would build up piles of logs or rails if they could be found in their front, and dig a ditch, throwing the dirt forward on the timber... It was wonderful how quickly they could in this way construct defenses of considerable strength.." [2]

This discovery of entrenching was not limited to Billy Yank. Federal staff officer Lt. Col. Theodore Lyman remarked during the Overland Campaign, "It is a rule that, when the Rebels halt, the first day gives them a good rifle-pit; the second a regular infantry parapet with artillery in position, and the third a parapet with an abatis in front and entrenched batteries behind." [3] This observation was seconded by a Johnny Reb, Alexander Hunter, who said, "No sooner would a line be formed when the enemy was near, than every man was busy throwing up a mound of dirt for protection." [4]

Grant confidant and aide, John Rawlins, wrote to his wife in May 1864 that a "few hours always suffice for an army acting purely on the defensive to fortify itself, and the fortifications make up greatly for inferiority of numbers." [5]

As troops began regularly entrenching, their methods improved from trial and error. During the battle of the Wilderness, General Hancock's men came into line along the Brock Road and began to dig. According to a member of the Philadelphia Brigade, "The troops on the road commenced strengthening their position with logs, dead trees and other debris of that character, of which there was an endless supply." [6]

As the months of combat wore on, the troops became faster, and often began entrenching without orders to do so. General Alexander described how the men dug ad-hoc entrenchments during the battle of Cold Harbor: "While Kershaw made his attack, the remainder of the long column halted in the road, expecting the march to be presently resumed. But when the delay was prolonged, and a few random bullets from the front began to reach the line, without any general instructions, the men here and there began to dig dirt with their bayonets and pile it with their tin cups to get a little cover. Others followed suit, and gradually the whole column was a work entrenching the line along which they hafted. [7]

Troops generally constructed hasty entrenchments out of any material at hand that would stop a bullet and provide some protection. Often a fence was quickly converted into a line of works. "A windrow of rails from the adjacent fences was laid; such spades and mattocks as they had were wielded by willing hands; and bayonets, tin cups, plates, and even the unaided hands lent assistance in digging a trench inside the rails and raising a parapet upon them," Hagood recounted. "The rapidity with which this was done was laughable," he added, and would have been incredible to anyone who had not seen soldiers who knew the value of earthworks, however slight, work under similar circumstances." [8]

While it was easier to use a line such as a fence to build on, troops often constructed their works with rocks (even converting rock walls), logs, trees, and any other similar object. Undoubtedly, using the above materials would speed construction of a line of works, but in most cases, dirt/earth was heaped onto the pile to provide greater protection. In fact, when no other objects were available, men would dig and make earthen entrenchments. "There were few, if any spades or shovels, but the men split their canteens, making scoops of them, and together with the bayonets and their hands, for the soil was light and sandy, soon had a very respectable earthwork thrown up," noted one of Breckinridge's soldiers. [9]

Once the troops had constructed their hasty entrenchments, the work would continue to improve the defenses. As the veteran soldiers began to appreciate earthworks, they also became effective combat engineers or sorts. Trees would be cut from in front of the entrenchments, trimmed of the upper branches, and hauled in sections to the earthworks. The sections of the trunks would be used to reinforce the inside of the works, providing greater strength and protection, and allow the works to be constructed higher.

Earth would then continue to be dug from behind the works and thrown on the front side. This achieved two purposes - increasing the height, and providing a "trench" for the soldiers to further protect themselves. The upper branches of the trees would then be sharpened, pointed towards the enemy, and anchored by the stumps. This slashing, or abatis, would have the effect of disrupting the formation of any attackers, allowing the defenders to shoot down the attackers as they worked their way through the sharpened branches. Finally, the now cleared area provided the defenders with increased visibility and field of fire.

From this point the works would become stronger in nature, often described as light or medium works. Head logs would be installed, transverses dug, and other facilities constructed. All of this construction occurred in a relatively short amount of time.

Hasty works in JR III