In America, the Seven Years War manifested itself as the French and Indian War. It could be said to have begun on the 8th July 1755 when General Braddock led an expedition [1] that included the redcoats of the 44th and 48th Regiments, and the bluecoats of Colonel George Washington's Virginians. Advancing on Fort Duquesne (now Pittsburgh PA), they were ambushed deep in the virgin forest on the Ohio river. A smaller force of French and Indians firing from concealed positions, some using rifles, [2] decimated them. As a direct result of this tragic defeat and rout it was decided by Horse Guards and an Act of Parliament to raise a force with the express purpose of meeting these new forest tactics. Included was a regiment of light troops [3] that would become renowned and some fifty-five years later, the scourge of the French in the Peninsular, the 60th Royal American Regiment.

It was raised in 1756, in New York, with the recruits drawn predominantly from German colonists in Pennsylvania, as well as from the Electorate of Hanover. It had four battalions of 1000 men with two famous Swiss officers, Colonels Henri Bouquet and Frederick Haldimand commanding officers of the 1st and 2nd Battalions respectively. The four battalions eventually served all over North and Central America, from Quebec down to the West Indies and Nicaragua.

By the end of the 18th Century, enlightened military thought was becoming more aware of the importance and usefulness of light troops and skirmishers, and the value of the rifle as a specialised weapon. General Jeffrey Amherst, the Colonel-in- Chief [4] had already ordered that certain companies in each of the 60th's battalions should be armed with rifles. This was a familiar weapon to the majority of the O.R.s, many of whom were hunters or backwoodsmen. It was these same colonists who introduced the rifle to America. [5]

The 60th Royal American Regiment was a numbered and, unusually for that time, a named regiment, and was also one of the largest regiments on the British establishment. Because it relied very much on the German recruits it was, in a sense, a 'German' regiment in character and was known by many as 'that German regiment'; it remained so until 1818. [6]

In 1797, a fifth battalion was added to the Regiment. This action was prompted by the French Revolutionary Wars. With many mercenary and auxiliary regiments formed from the abundance of willing recruits from Europe, it was decided to form a specialised light infantry battalion. By drafting into it a number of these mainly German troops the 5th Battalion could become a special jager or rifle unit. It was thought that these foreign troops made 'natural' marksmen and were more suitable for the hazardous work of skirmishing. Some who were not in favour of rifle armed troops said that British troops ought not to be spared for such dangerous work and that it should be left to the foreigners.

The 5th Battalion was added to the regiment by Act of Parliament, 30th December 1797, and the order to raise it issued in January 1798. The Act 38 GEO III cap 13 was passed as an amendment to Act 29 GEO. III cap 5, under which the first four battalions were raised. It empowered the King to 'augment His Majesty's Sixtieth Regiment of Infantry, now consisting of four battalions of One Thousand Men each, by the addition of a Fifth battalion, to consist in the like manner of One Thousand men, or other foreign Protestants who have served abroad as officers or engineers. [7]

The Act speaks of the 'present juncture of affairs rendering it expedient to facilitate the speedy raising of the battalion.' Those enlisted for the first four battalions were attested for foreign service only, which meant service on the American continent. Those that were drafted into the 5/60th from the auxiliary regiments had already been attested for general service and therefore could serve anywhere.

The first phase in raising the 5th Battalion was the muster of the foreign jager regiments and individuals at Albany Barracks, near Cowes on the Isle of Wight. [8]

The majority came from Hompesch's Corps, amounting to 17 officers and 300 other ranks. Included among the officers were notably the future CO, Colonel Baron de Rottenburg, and Lt.- Colonel Robert Crauford ('Black Bob'). Others came eventually from various depleted corps which included Hardy's York Fusiliers, Ramsay's York Chasseurs or Rangers, Waldstein's Chasseurs and Prince Lowenstein Wertheim's Chasseurs.

At the first phase, Lowenstein's Chasseurs were on active service on Martinique as part of Sir Ralph Abercromby's force. Before continuing into phase two, Colonel de Rottenburg took the embryo battalion to Ireland, to serve under General John Moore in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. [9]

Phase two occurred the following year in 1799 when Colonel de Rottenburg arrived with the half strength battalion at Surinam, which the Dutch held and which they were only too pleased to quit. It was here that they were joined by 30 officers and 580 O.R.s from Lowenstein's Chasseurs, who came with a high recommendation from Sir Ralph Abercromby.

'The raising of the 5th Battalion and the appointment of Baron de Rottenburg to its command marked not only a distinct epoch in the history of the Regiment, but an important stage in the development of the British Army. Just as Bouquet, in 1756, had introduced radical changes of dress, training and tactics into the 60th Royal Americans, so did de Rottenburg in 1797 introduce a system, new to the British Army, which contributed not a little to the successful issue of the Peninsular Campaign.' Thus wrote the Regimental Historian. [10]

De Rottenburg had considerable military experience in Europe having joined Count Hompesch's Fusiliers as major in 1795, later rising to Lt.-Colonel. He was well known as the first leading exponent of light infantry training and tactics in the British Army. His excellent training manual was used freely by Coote- Manningham, Sir John Moore and Colonels Stewart and Mackenzie at the Shorncliffe light infantry training camp in Kent. De Rottenburg also prepared the Regulations for the Exercise of Riflemen and Light Infantry and instructions for their Conduct in the Field for Field Marshal HRH Duke of York, the recently appointed Commander-in-Chief. It was illustrated and originally written in German by de Rottenburg and later translated by William Fawcett, Adjutant-General. It was mainly influenced by the drill manual written by Oberstleutnant Von Ewald who was well known for his tactical use of light infantry in the American Revolution. [11]

Whereas von Ewald stressed the offensive role ('Always surprise them; attack first.'), de Rottenburg's emphasis was on the defensive or protective role.

The men of the 5th Battalion would at first meeting have looked decidedly foreign in appearance. They would have seemed more like a regiment of continental jagers or chasseurs with their green jackets, blue pantaloons and their Austrian-style bell-topped shakos. All of them followed the continental custom of sporting non-regulation moustaches for the wearing of which the 5th Battalion was given special dispensation. [12]

This was probably a privilege arranged by de Rottenburg to further 'esprit de corps'. As the Marquess of Wellington himself would later say of the 1812 uniform changes, '[t] hey did not represent a very British silhouette when seen on the skyline'. They were known by others as the 'Jaggers' which was the anglicised version of jagers.

The first four battalions originally wore scarlet coats with the blue facings of a 'Royal' regiment as their parade dress. In deciding to equip and dress the 5th Battalion as j~gers it was obviously Colonel de Rottenburg's influence that affected the final choice of uniform design. It was, after all, very similar to that worn by the Hompesch Fusiliers. [13]

Hardy's York Fusiliers also wore green jackets and pantaloons faced with red. Dark green was a common or traditional choice of colour by many continental jager and chasseur regiments. The other common colour was that worn by Lowenstein's Chasseurs, blue-grey with dark green facings.

The original uniform of the 5/60th was changed and modified several times during its short life. There were modifications made in 1806, 1812 and 1815. The first uniform for other ranks consisted of a short dark green jacket, piped down the front with red, red facings, green shoulder straps feathered in red, with green wings laced with red. The jacket had a single centre vertical row of white metal or pewter buttons. The pantaloons were a pale to mid-blue with red piping down the seams and red ornamented falls to the front and worn with short black gaiters and black shoes.

In July 1801 (after the formation of the 95th Regiment), it was decreed that all descriptions of riflemen should be dressed alike, without distinction, except for buttons and facings. It took several years to implement. In 1806, the blue pantaloons were changed to dark blue and in 1812 to dark green. officers and men wore blue overalls and blue ornamented pantaloons for full dress in 1814-15.

By 1812, the uniforms for all battalions of the 60th Regiment, the 95th Rifles and the Light Battalions and Scharfschutzen Korps of the King's German Legion complied with the 1801 decree.

The uniform of the officers was inspired by that of the cavalry. At first they wore the very dashing and elegant 'Tarleton' headdress. They also wore the cavalry-style dolman and pelisse tunics. A small black leather pouch, with a silver light infantry horn on the flap, was worn with a black leather cross belt across the left shoulder. The front of the belt was ornamented with a silver lion's head with chain and whistle, and also a silver cross- pattee plate or badge which was inherited from the Hompesch Fusiliers. It is thought to be a Bavarian Order originating from the Knights Templar. The cross-pattee is a variation of the Maltese cross, which became eventually the regimental badge of the 60th.

The pouch was always worn when an officer was on duty in place of the gorget. The latter had a bright surface and gave an enemy sharpshooter a target. 'Shoot the officers, aim for their gorgets' was a lesson learnt from the American Revolution. The custom of wearing pouch belts when an officer is on duty still continues with the Royal Green Jackets if the officer is in parade dress.

The illustration of the officer's uniform accompanying this article is based on a description given by Major-General Astley- Terry, when he described the uniform shown in a portrait of Captain John Wolff. Wolff went to the Peninsular with the 5th Battalion on June 15th 1808. He was wounded at Talavera on 27th July 1808 and taken prisoner. By the time of the 5th Battalion's departure from Ireland to sail for Portugal the uniform had undergone some modifications to conform to the decree of July 1801.

The short jacket was made of standard 'rifle' green material with red facings. Dark blue pantaloons were now worn. The shako was now a 'stove pipe', nine inches tall with a leather peak. It was oval in section at the base (head shaped), rising to circular sectioned top. There is no evidence of a tapered light infantry shako, although the issued shako appears tapered when seen in side view. By 1815 all battalions of the 60th were dressed in 'rifle' green.

Prior to the battalion sailing for Portugal in 1808, Colonel de Rottenburg was appointed Brigadier-General and given a training command at the Curragh. [14]

Major Gabriel Davy, his disciple, became the new commanding officer who took the battalion to the Peninsula and, like his mentor, was concerned about all matters to do with equipment and dress. He was most particular about daily parades on the line of march and in camp. No excuses would be taken, whether the men had clothes or not.

The following order, issued in Portugal in 1809, makes this clear: 'On halting-days the officers commanding companies will inspect their men at eleven o'clock roll call, and they will pay particular attention to the state of the arms, ammunition and accoutrements. The blue pantaloons which have been torn upon the march are immediately to be repaired, and those men who are under the absolute necessity of wearing their white drawers must appear with them well washed and cleaned. The stocks are to be worn, [15] and the rosettes (cherries) and bugles which have been torn out of the caps are to be replaced.' The order also mentions that necessity had forced him to authorise the cutting away of the skirts to patch the upper part of the jackets.

Unique

The 5th Battalion was unique in that it was the first battalionsized unit in the British Army to be both specifically raised as skirmishers and to be armed with rifles. Many did not favour skirmishers, with their tactics based on independent action. When the basic principle of battle tactics was the heavy weight of mass fire from the large formations of disciplined troops, rolling volleys were the answer. The concept of aimed fire at selected targets was not considered important, indeed it was actively discouraged as it slowed down the rate of fire. Scharnhorst remarked after Prussia's disastrous war with France in 1806: 'Before the war we taught the men to load quickly but not well, to fire quickly but without aiming. This was very ill-considered.'

The original intakes of the 5th Battalion came with their own short, thick-barrelled rifles. They were of Prussian manufacture and were known as the 'Hompesch Rifle', an example of which can be seen in the Royal Greenjackets Museum, Peninsula Barracks Winchester. It looks in outward appearance very similar to the Baker Rifle. They continued to use these rifles until 11th June 1808 when, based in New Barracks in Cork, they were equipped with the new Baker rifle.

Evaluation tests of rifles from all sources had taken place at Woolwich in 1800 [16] and it was decided that the best rifle was the one designed and built by Ezekiel Baker of Whitechapel, London. [17]

His rifle was thirty inches long in the barrel. It had a calibre of .615 and had a flintlock. It carried a sword-bayonet called a spadroon, which was twenty seven and a half inches long and was always referred to a 'sword' [18]

The rifle was accurate up to 300 or 400 yards and a skilled rifleman could fire three rounds a minute. To perfect the rifleman's skills, Colonel de Rottenburg encouraged practice on the ranges, on fixed targets, moving targets (mounted on trolleys), and on what today are called 'snap targets'. Firing from different stances and positions was practised, i.e. standing, kneeling, sitting, prone and supine. The musket could be a formidable weapon at close range if used by troops who had been well trained in its use. French Voltigeurs had to close in to about 25 yards to make sure of hitting a target. Unfortunately, many commanders did not encourage the practical use of arms.

The troops went through the motions on the drill fields with their manual drills, but many did not fire their first shot until they were actually on the battlefield. The main issue in the opposition to rifle armed skirmishers was the weapon itself. The criticism was that the rifle took longer to load, two rounds per minute as opposed to four or five with the musket, so that it was not a suitable weapon for rolling volleys. In addition, the user was vulnerable during the lengthy reloading procedure. De Rottenburg's training plan allowed for this by ample practice on the ranges to improve both their marksmanship and the rate of fire. The core to his training scheme was 'pairing'. All riflemen were 'paired' and they learned to train, drill and fight as partners. in action, one was always able to offer covering fire, standing by, primed and loaded whilst the second loaded his piece.

Officers were usually armed with personal pistols and they carried a curved sword of light cavalry type, neither of which were ideally suited for the actions generally experienced. Sergeants were armed with rifles and were usually expert marksmen. many junior officers preferred to carry rifles into action (as did James Wolfe with his musket at Quebec in 1759). [19]

By this means they would be a useful addition to the section's firepower and stand out less as officers.

As a testament to the calculation and accuracy of the 5th Battalion's riflemen and the skill of Colonel de Rottenburg's training, a report from Marechal Soult, French C. in C. in Spain, to the Minister of War in Paris survives:

(A Summary) St. Jean de Luz, 1st September 1813

'The loss in prominent and superior officers sustained for some time past by the army is so disproportionate to that of the rank and file that I have been at pains to discover the reason, and I have acquired the following information. There is in the English (sic) army a battalion of the 60th consisting of ten companies. This battalion is never concentrated, but has a company attached to each infantry Division. It is armed with a short rifle; the men are selected for their marksmanship; they perform the duties of scouts, and in action are expressly ordered to pick off the officers, especially Field and General officers. Thus it has been observed that whenever a superior officer goes to the front during an action, either for the purposes of observation or to lead and encourage his men, he is usually hit. This mode of making war is very detrimental to us.

Our casualties in officers are so great that after a couple of actions the whole number are usually disabled. I saw yesterday battalions whose officers had been disabled in the ratio of one officer to eight men. I also saw battalions which were reduced to two or three officers although less than one sixth of their men had been disabled. You can imagine that if these casualties recur, it would be very difficult to provide for the replacement of officers.'