Since the beginning of written military history spies and scouts have been of key importance in war. Tuthmose III on his way to the Battle of Megiddo is confronted with three possible passes to reach the King of Kadesh. "It is reported that the enemy are at the exit in great numbers." Reported by whom? An enemy herald? I doubt it. Reported by a pro Egyptian local? Possibly. By an enemy deserter? Unlikely. Or by an Egyptian soldier sent ahead to look over the situation? Probably. That man was a scout. If he dressed as a local he was a spy. If he had been captured he could expect no mercy.

Spies are not just active during wars but before them as well. During the Middle Ages wandering monks, pilgrims, merchants and entertainers were constantly suspected of spying for the "other side." Such wanderers could come and go as they pleased so of course they could report on the strength of castle walls and disposition of men. When the Troubadour Blondel discovered where Richard the Lion Hearted was being kept prisoner, he was one of these wandering spies. If the local sheriff had not been napping, the singer would have been detected and either arrested or quietly killed in a back alley.

The Renaissance and Reformation lead to the rise of the diplomatic spy. Peace negotiators not only made peace, but tried to figure out how hungry the other side was for peace – which determines the price. This involves not just looking at castles and weapons but also the whole society. Queen Elizabeth skillfully used undefended country manors to project the sense of security and order in England such that few felt England's vulnerability. Niccolo Machiavelli would have approved since it is vital for a Prince (and a prince's agents) to appear to give while really give nothing away at all. The credo of all spies.

The 17th Century saw spies used extensively in England, France and Spain. Richelieu's agents caused revolt in Portugal. Spanish agents egged on the Fronde and English agents were widely active during the civil war. Germanys long struggle with war made spying and security even more important since irregular warfare ala light cavalry, Slavic skirmishers and all sides marauding camp followers made the countryside unsafe to all. Thus Prussia's rigid internal security.

At the dawn of the Age of Reason, the need and appreciation of useful intelligence was known by all.

WHAT WAS THE AGE OF REASON TO EUROPEANS?

Since we call this period an age of reason it makes sense to consider what this means and how it effected what people could see. In the Middle Ages, Marco Polo and Sir Robert Mandeville reported dragons, uni-pod people with heads in their chests and miraculous things which were believed without question. The discovery of the New World and the beginning of science threw all those beliefs into question. Francis Bacon and John Locke's empiricism suggest believing what we see over what we think.

Voyages of exploration brought back scientific accounts of things found in far off lands. Some miraculous for sure, but real. So "reason" means trusting what one sees. Reason also suggests that we can understand the laws behind the way things work in the world. Gunnery, fortress construction, weapons and tactics can all be seen and understood. One only need look and learn.

Universal laws and orderliness translate into statecraft by the implementation of the institutions of the modern state: purposeful laws, police, courts, and military planning. The most orderly society in Europe in 1750 was undoubtedly Prussia. A state whose sole purpose was to make war.

Of course the light of reason was very uneven. Large areas of Europe were still unenlightened. In the 18th Century, only literate educated people knew about the new way of thinking. The majority still believed story tellers like Baron Munchausen and other bored librarians.

Such is Europe at the time of the Seven Years War. A small group of well educated enlightened classes (nobles, gentlemen and merchants) and a great mass of ignorant peasants.

PEACE TIME SPYING

The 18th Century was the great era of French control of taste. The French court was copied everywhere. All educated noblemen spoke French as well as Latin. As such they were members of the same club. Nobles from many lands easily moved in and out of all the courts of the land. Germany especially was attractive to wandering noblemen due to its proliferation of sovereign courts. Nobles could serve as military officers, courtiers, or welcomed guests. All of which put them in position to see and hear the inner working of a government. The movie Barry Lyndon shows a wonderful example of such a noble and who Prussian counter agents try to foil him.

Nobles and gentry acquired their education at schools and universities but they also learned by travel. A gentleman was not well rounded until he had been on the Grand Tour. France, Italy, German and Holland were visited. Along the way each language was learned and the young dandy had the opportunity to see first hand the fortresses and land he may one day have to attack. Gentlemen on the tour were not generally suspected of being more than ignorant boys - but they could have been more.

Diplomats were certainly active prior to the Seven Years War. The diplomatic revolution that realigned Prussia and England, and France and Austria, sent agents scurrying back and forth across the continent. Diplomatic agents were educated intelligent men who could observe and report on their findings in detail. Even the Ottoman Turks used diplomatic spies of this kind. Since these were the men who made war and peace, their assessments of enemy strength were all important. Their assessment of Prussia was that it was weak. So war followed.

Merchants were everywhere but strangely unnoticed by countries. Despite the fact that of war, merchants continued to do business with enemy powers as late as the Crimean War! Merchant ships and smugglers fit into naval intelligence while mule train merchants between France and Italy carried messages between agents and could switch into bandits as the situation arose.

AMATEURS AND PROFESSIONALS

Despite the awareness of the importance of the need for good information about the enemy, spying was largely an amateur affair until the 20th Century. Each general could have his own establishment of spies serving his army. Diplomats had their own agents working for their own ends. There may have been cooperation between spy forces but only if the two leaders involved made it happen. No universal intelligence coordination existed.

Gifted amateurs did exist. Intrepid noblemen, in search of more interesting work than commanding soldiers, and educated gentry are mentioned in the Encyclopedia of Spies as active in the 18th Century. These fellows, usually military officers, recruited other agents to do the actual dirty work. There was no drill book to learn from, so success depended largely on their own ingenuity and initiative.

Throughout history spies have relied on little people to gather the actual information. Women, children, old men, enemy deserters, criminals, merchants, students and servants, fill the ranks of the lowest most at risk agents. These people were never professionals. They were also often not skilled. Which is why many were captured and killed. Laws about hanging spies are very old!

Counter intelligence seems to have been an after thought. Prussia was fortunate to be a well ordered society. Army provosts patrolled the countryside to pick up stray soldiers and suspicious travelers (as seen in Barry Lyndon) so spies had a rough time there. More open societies like England, France and Italy were more easily gotten through. So spies would have to watch out for soldiers, provost marshals, press gangs and local law enforcers. Bandits could be dangerous but could be hired as well. In general though, spies were only at major risk when they neared an enemy army.

HUNGARIANS, CROATS AND CLOUDS OF COSSACKS

Light irregular troops fan out in front of armies to loot and pillage the countryside. As a secondary benefit they form an effective screen to spies and scouts. Such visitors would be skirmished with a possibly captured. Light troops might provide information themselves but given their real purpose (to find money) this could not be relied on. Send lights against enemy supply wagons and they obey orders, ask them to fight in a stand up fight and prepare to be disobeyed!

Roger's Rangers and American Indian tribes used irregular warfare to screen and gather intelligence in North America. But as with European irregulars they were better at looting undefended farms than fighting stand up battles.

REASONABLE FOG OF WAR

Completely lacking military intelligence or inaccurate information were nothing new to the enlightened general. In fact they were expected. Spies might reveal some clues to the enemies' intention, but they could not be very clear. A spy just can't get into an enemy general's head. So in the end battles were fought in ignorance. So generals do not need complete information to do their job. What they need is intelligence and good instincts to read their enemy. "What would I do if I were my enemy?" is the first question to ask to guess where they might be. A good guess coupled with a few facts (gained by spies) can give one a pretty good feel for what is going on. In terms of science it like coupling a theory with experimental observation.

The 18th Century predates social science, so the spies of the day did not have a good language to explain what was going on in the society at large. What was seen could be misinterpreted. Turkish diplomats to France in the 1720's harped on and on about the shameless dress of French women and failed to notice how the more open society was making leaps and bounds in technology and productivity that would make Turkey very vulnerable in the years to come.

CAN SEVEN YEARS WAR ESPIONAGE BE GAMED?

YES!!! I wouldn't have written an article if I didn't think so! My next article will present a Seven Years War spy game set in 1755 Dresden. It will be called "Prussian? No I'm not Prussian. I'm French." Being a game of intrigue and deceit on the eve of war. If you want to see how I do spy games check my Hamster Press web page. http://www.io.com/~hamster It tells all about Matrix Games.

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