Napoleon Against the Mameluks
Campaign in Egypt
By Alexander Mikaberidze, Georgia
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Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt is an episode so strange and unordinary that it captures great attention and imagination. At times it seems like a storybook, filled with famous places, colorful characters and vicious and strange actions. And all of it is true. The so-called battle of the Pyramids will ever have a fictitious and romantic fame. It will ever be a symbol of struggle of the East and the West under the shadow of Pyramids - symbol of Eternity.
In his youth, Bonaparte had been fascinated with the East, and he always wanted to go there. When he got his chance, he took a whole army to accomplish it. He pictured himself following in the footsteps of Alexander the Great and making an Empire in the East. Perhaps only a genie as great as that of Bonaparte’s could do anything so unique, ever occur.
Egypt -- legendary country of Pyramids, Sphinx and great Civilization; a country which during its long history has seen various invaders and conquerors - from bizarre “Sea people” in the second millennium, famous phalanxes of Alexander and chariots of Darius till hordes of Mongols and steel “carres” of Bonaparte. This fairyland has a great number of unsolved mysteries and one of them is a secret of the Mameluks. At the period of Bonaparte, Egypt was, in name, a part of the Ottoman Empire and therefore its ruler was the Sultan of Istanbul (Constantinople). In point of fact, however, the real power had lain with the Mameluks caste for the past 600 years.
The Mameluks are integral part of the history of Egypt. For almost 600 years they governed this country, defended it from foreign conquerors and created their own culture.
A number of papers were presented during the Congress, all related to Napoleon and French army. The French were not, however, the only people who fought in Egypt. This paper is a brief history of those people who fought against them and perished during this struggle. When one is reading or researching Egyptian campaign of Napoleon, he inevitably asks himself about the Mameluks - who are these people, where did they come from and how did they disappear?
An interesting version does exists in the western historical literature, including C. F. Volney’s Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte and P. Larusse’s Le grand dictionnaire universelle. According to these sources one of the descendents of Saladin (Salah-ad-Adin, ruled 1171-1193) purchased 12000 infants in Circassia and Georgia, particularly in the western part of Georgia known as Mingrelia.
Arabian writers like Muhammad Hamsa Uleishi and Rashid Al-Baravi, as well as famous historian W. Sloane believed that the beginning of the Mameluks belongs to an earlier period. According to their version the history of Mameluks began in XII century, when Saladin “followed a tradition of eastern despotism in the formation of a bodyguard destitute of all ties except those, which bound them to his person. Purchased as infants in Georgia or Circassia, its members were, like the janizaries at Constantinople (who were also mostly of Georgians and Circassians), trained to arms as an exclusive profession, and mounted on the finest steeds of Arabia, they became the elite of his army. In time this force of acute and powerful men transformed itself into a warrior caste and was divided into twenty-four companies - “Sanjaks”, and obeyed no authority except their captains. These were known in oriental phrase as “Begs”, and the subordinates were whom we call Mameluks which in Arabian means “White Slave”. The whole formed a kind of chivalry which, though reduced to nominal submission in 1517, still governed the land with despotic power, and bade defiance to the Sultan’s shaky authority.
This can be divided into 3 periods:
First Period
In 1096 the Crusades began as result of proclamation of Pope Urban II. In 1099, after ferocious battles with coalition of Muslims, the Crusaders managed to seize Jerusalem and then to establish the kingdoms of Antioch, Jerusalem, Edes and others. The war for a Holy Land met with unsteady success lasted for a long period. In the end of XII century Saladin (Salah-ad-Adin) decided, in order to gain upper hand in this struggle, to find additional sources for his armies and followed the tradition of purchasing of a great number of kidnapped infants from Georgia and Circassia. Sometimes it is mentioned that first time he bought about 12,000 of men and turned them into Mameluks.
During this period infants were kidnapped, then brought up as brilliant warriors, promoted and trained to arms as an exclusive professionals. This is an important period in the history of Mameluks, as during this time (from second part of XII century until first part of XIII century) they formed as a social class, category and warrior clan. This is the foundation for their latter history of almost 600 years.
Second Period
This lasts 267 years (1250 - 1517) is a period when Mameluks made a coup d’état and took power into their hands. According to tradition, one of the Ajubian sultans (dynasty of Sultans during 12-13 centuries, which governed in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia and southern Arabia, and which was founded by famed Salah-ad-Adin or Saladin), Turan-Shah signed a peace agreement with the Crusaders on conditions that Mameluk leaders did not consider appropriate. In 1250, after the assassination of Turan Shah, the nominal authority was transferred to Queen Shajar Adur, but in fact the real power was laid down to the Mameluks. The Egyptian Guard, however, was upset by the rise of the Mameluks caste. They declared war and several months later managed to return authority to the Ajubian dynasty. But the Mameluks did not submit and continue to fight. Finally they managed to overthrow the Ajubian dynasty one more time.
Mameluk Sultans managed to create quite powerful state within a short period. For almost 250 years they fought foreign enemies: Mameluks defeated Crusaders during those famous campaigns, stopped hordes of Mongols in the famous battle of Ain-Jaludi on 3/9/1260 and advanced the country to a high level.
During this period (1250-1517) there were two dynasties, which ruled Egypt. During 1250-1382 - Dynasty of Bahri sultans. “Bahri” in Arabian means “Sea”, at the same time Nile was also called by Arabs as “Bahri” for its size. The first Mameluks of this dynasty possessed a little island Ar-Raud on the Nile, that is why they were called “Bahri Dynasty.” They were mostly of Turkish origin. From 1382-1517 (in fact till 1811, including period of supremacy of Ottoman Empire), Egypt was ruled by the Dynasty of Burji - mostly of Georgian and Circassian origin (the name “Burji” derived from the Arabian name of the citadel of Cairo, Burji, where the Mameluk garrison used to stay).
Third Period
The Third Period began from 1517 when Mameluks could not resist the increasing supremacy of Ottoman Empire that finally caused annexation of Egypt by Ottomans. Despite of the fact that Mameluks had lost their absolute power, they still were strong enough to hold almost every high position in the country and kept their authority. The “wali” or viceroy of Sultan in Egypt however had only nominal powers and was treated as a “Honourable Captive”. It must be mentioned that starting from this period, Mameluks arrived in Egypt only from Caucasus, and Georgia in particular. One of the reasons why it happened so, is that Mameluks Beys, who were mostly of Georgia origin, tried to fill the ranks of Mameluks by their own compatriots, Georgians and thus to strengthen their positions.
The famous Mameluk leaders, Murad Beg and Ibrahim Beg, as well as the majority of other Mameluks, were kidnapped in childhood from Georgia. As an example, Murad Beg was born in Tbilisi and Ibrahim Beg was from little village Martkopi, near the capital of Georgia.
Napoleon’s famous bodyguard Roustan was Armenian from Tbilisi, and his real name was Rostom Raza. In his memoirs, Rustam wrote that he was born in Tiflis (an old name of Tbilisi) and his father Rustam Unan was a merchant. Noteworthy, that first valet de chamber to Napoleon, Constant, in his memoirs wrote, that “Roustan, so well known under the name of the Emperor’s Mameluke, belonged to a good Georgian family. [Roustam is not a Georgian was Armenian, but perhaps due to the fact that he was born in Tbilisi, he was considered Georgian]
Carried off at the age of six or seven years and taken to Cairo, he had been brought up among the young slaves who serve the Mameluks while awaiting the time when they shall be old enough to enter that warlike militia themselves. The Sheik of Cairo, when giving General Bonaparte a magnificent Arabian steed, had also given him Roustan and Ibrahim, another Mameluke who was afterwards attached to Madame Bonaparte’s service under the name of Ali. It is known that Roustan became an indispensable accompaniment on every occasion when the Emperor appeared in public. He was a part of every journey, every cortege, and, what was most honorable of all, of every battle. In the brilliant staff which followed the Emperor, he shone above all the rest by the glitter of his rich Oriental costume. The sight of him produced a prodigious effect, especially on the common people and in the provinces. He was supposed to be in high credit with the Emperor, and this arose, according to certain credulous persons, from the fact that Roustan had saved his master’s life by throwing himself between him and the sabre of an enemy about to strike him. M. Roustan married a young and pretty Frenchwoman, named Mademoiselle Douville, whose father was the Empress Josephine’s valet de chambre.”
During this period of almost 47 Mameluk Begs governed Egypt, and the majority of them were Georgians, while others of Circassian origin. At the same time I would like to say a few words about the term “Circassia” and “Circassian dynasty”. It is very interesting that very often in the western literature of this period, the term “Circassia” has not only ethnic but also geographical mean. There several examples, when western writers used the term “Circassia” to describe Georgia, e.g some French writer used the term “King of Circassia” while describing the Kingdom of Kartli (eastern part of Georgia) and King Irakli II. Of course I do not try to diminish the role of Circassians in the history of Egypt. Also Lousinian’s note is noteworthy, where he wrote that all these slaves (Mameluks) are originally from Iberia, that is commonly called Georgia, Circassia or Mingrelia. At the same time, many Circassian did not speak any language but Georgian. Kansuh ez-Zahri and Hassan Beg, for example, were Circassians by origin, but spoke only Georgian.
In 1768 Mameluks managed to liberate Egypt from Ottoman Empire. They ruled Egypt with a title “Sheih al-Balad” and first sheih al-balad was Ali Beg from western part of Georgia, Mingrelia.
Every year during 6 centuries there were a great number of kidnapped Georgians sold in markets in Izmir, Damask, Cairo and Istanbul. Approximately, 20,000-25,000 Georgians were annually kidnapped and sold, which means that during 6 centuries almost 12-13 million Georgians were kidnapped, while the present population of Georgia is about 4,5 million people.
Part of kidnapped went to the Istanbul where they filled Janizaries rows, and part of them went to Egypt. Most of “Egyptian Mameluks” were from west Georgia, as historically this part of Georgia was influenced first by Seljuk and then by Ottoman Empires, while Eastern Georgia was under Iran dominion.
Also, beside of kidnapped Mameluks, there were a lot of Georgians and Circassians who left their native land for political or other reasons and went to far countries, and among them Egypt. Despite of the fact that during long periods Mameluks were separated from their homeland, most of them never broke the contact with it. In the 13th century Georgian King George VI corresponded with the Mameluk Sultans of Egypt. It was with their great assistance that Georgian Orthodox Church retrieved its Churches in Holy Land. As we mentioned above, famous Ibrahim Beg was born in peasant’s family in Martkopi, near Tbilisi and kidnapped in childhood. Despite of almost 25 years of being separated from home and living abroad, Ibrahim Beg finally found his family. He notified the King of Georgia Irakli II about the hardship of his family (as it was a peasant family) and asked him for help. The King of Georgia Irakli II gave them nobility and land. It is very interesting that despite of being Muslim, Ibrahim Bey donated a comprehensive sum of money to build a church in his native village Martkopi.
Frequently, Georgian Mameluks were oppose to each other, because in Ottoman Empire there were a lot of Georgians too - “Turkish” Georgians were often fighting against their “Egyptian” compatriots. The famous Turkish admiral Kabudan Pasha, who invaded Egypt and captured Cairo, was Georgian, from a little village Pshaveli in the north of Georgia and during the negotiations with Mameluks spoke only in Georgian. Among the Turkish nobility there were Georgian noblemen - Jakels, Diasamidzes, Shalikashvils. During the 15-17 centuries Georgian Mameluks composed the Royal Court of Iran. The famous Shah of Iran Abbas I, “Iranian Lion” who empowered Iran to highest extent was “half-Georgian”, as his grandmother and mother were Georgians, as well as his 4 wives. Despite this, Shah Abbas I was the most ferocious enemy of Georgia, and in 1614-1618 resettled more than 350,000 Georgians to the province Fereidan of Iran from Georgia to create new strong army and to develop handicraft and trade. There are many descendants of those Georgians currently living in Iran. They speak Georgian, but in fact they are not Georgians. From Georgians settled in this area Shah Abbas I formed the Royal Guard, with the use of which he conquered Afghanistan, Pakistan and part of India. Since his times until the coup d’etat of Nadir Shah, an unofficial state language in Royal Court of Iran was Georgian. For 50 years Georgian Mameluks governed Afghanistan and had established a few kingdoms in far India, which was the most eastern point of Mameluk settlement.
There were probably 60,000-65,000 Mameluks living in Egypt during Napoleonic times, of which some 15,000-17,000 composed the Mameluk cavalry, which was the best army in the whole Asia Minor. Of course this issue creates many disputes, but it is fact that Mameluks were excellent warriors, and their virtuosity, courage, and dedication astonished Napoleon. The Mameluk cavalry was certainly impressive to look at. It was considered by Napoleon to be the best in the whole world - “. . . 10,000 of Mameluks could have easily fight and win against 50,000 Turks . . . I could not imagine what I could do using a fistful of these warriors,” Napoleon once said. And indeed, mounted on fine Arabian steeds (the most valuable treasure of Mameluks, as well as of Arabs), always armed to the teeth with a shotgun, 4 pistols and bejeweled scimitars, Mameluks were the strongest army in the whole Asia Minor. But despite all their weaponry and flashy power, the Mameluks were still essentially a medieval fighting force. Their dedication knew only how to charge, which was no match for the firepower and steel discipline of the French soldiers. This basic pattern was seen in every conflict, big or small, during the entire Egyptian campaign. But we must not diminish the role of Mameluks in the struggle against Napoleon. Of course, their medieval firearms could not resist French firepower, but their martial art was incomparably higher. As Napoleon once said: “One Mameluk is stronger than two French soldiers, 100 Mameluks is equal to 150 French soldiers, but 300 Frenchmen will defeat 300 Mameluks, and 1500 Mameluks will always lose to 1000 Frenchmen”. As we see, the martial art of a separate Mameluk was very high, but the steel discipline French soldiers and the genius of their commander-in-chief always defeated them. In my opinion, the fact, that for six months general Desaix with his 10,000 soldiers was fighting against Mameluks of Murad Bey, losing precious time while Bonaparte was at war with superior forces of Ottoman Empire, was a significant (but of course, not decisive) reason that decided beforehand the future of this campaign.
It was Mameluk custom to carry their wealth on their persons, and after the battle of the Pyramids the French soldiers spent much time in fishing for the drowned Mameluks. It was estimated that each body thus recovered would afford several thousands of francs to the lucky finder. If this is about an average Mameluks, what can we say about Begs and their wealth? To imagine the treasure of Mameluks, I would like to recall the moment when Murad Bey was invited by the French Consul to begin negotiations with Napoleon. According to the Foreign Policy Archives of Russia, Murad Bey replied that if Bonaparte would go back to Alexandria and withdraw his troops, Mameluks would pay more than 10,000,000 franks.
Despite of opinion of some researchers that reign of Mameluks affected the well being of the Country negatively, I believe that their government had many positive sides. During their reign, numbers of palaces, mosques and other mansions were erected in Egypt and Palestine, gardens were flourished; Famous Mamluk Sultan Baibars built an irrigation system and created such an excellent communication system that he was able to receive letters and information from Damascus to Cairo only in 4 days. The decrease of population rate, which is often blamed on Mameluks, was caused by the idea of conquering Egypt by Ottoman Empire, resulting in continuous battles. Besides, the shifting of a trade road to Ottoman Empire resulted in resettlement of a chunk of Egyptian population there.
Post French Invasion
After departure of French troops in 1801, Mameluks continued their struggle for independence, this time against Ottoman Empire and Britain. During more than five years Mameluks fought against superior enemies and defeated them several times. It must be mentioned that in 1803 Mameluk leaders Ibrahim Beg and Usman Beg wrote a letter to Russian general-consul and asked him to mediate to Sultan in Istanbul as they wanted to cease fire and return to their homeland, Georgia. But of course, the Russian Ambassador in Istanbul categorically refused to mediate, as the Russian government was afraid of allowing Mameluks to return. Meanwhile, in Georgia there was a strong national-liberation movement and the Mameluks return would have empowered it.
In 1805 the population of Cairo rebelled and there was an excellent opportunity for Mameluks to seize the state authority and became independent. But the tension among them, betrayal by some Mameluks did not allow them to seize this chance. In March 26 1806 Muhammad Ali was appointed to “wali” - governor of Egypt. He was born in 1769 at Kavallë, a small maritime town of Rumelia, in European Turkey. This district is renowned in the east for its aromatic tobacco, which rivals that of Latakieh, among the dreamy smokers of the oriental chibouque.
At the same time, during all this period, the war between Turks and Mameluks did not cease. In 1806 Mameluks several times defeated Turkish forces, and in June confronting parties concluded a treaty, according to which Muhammad Ali was to go to Thessaloniki and the state authority in Egypt returned to Mameluks. But again, internal tension, conflicts between the clans did not allow Mameluks to use this opportunity. Muhammad Ali kept its authority and this fact became fatal for Mameluks.
As we mentioned, since the appointing to wali of Egypt, Muhammad Ali was looking for an appropriate moment to eliminate all Mameluks, who were still very strong and extremely dangerous for his power. During 1809-1810 Muhammad Ali managed to split Mameluks, one part of who went to Sudan and settled there. Finally an appropriate moment was found . . .
On the 1st of March, 1811, Mohammed Ali succeeded in destroying the greater part of these refractory Beys, by a sanguinary and treacherous act, which has no parallel in any annals but those of eastern empires. It would be so judged by the rule of abstract morals; yet, political necessity would sanction it in the east. The Pasha had not then studied Machiavelli, which he has in part, since read. He had succeeded in conciliating those Beys, to a certain degree, and had disarmed their fears and suspicions. About this period, the expedition against the Wahabis, the enemies of Islam, was preparing to leave Cairo. The departure of this expedition, was made the occasion of calling together the civil and military authorities, under ceremonies becoming the occasion. The Mameluk Beys were also invited to join the ceremonies and the procession that was to signalize the event. They obeyed the invitation, and were received with every demonstration of friendship, and with distinction suitable to their rank. Here then, the Pacha had artfully succeeded in assembling, at the citadel of Cairo, the chief Mameluks, to the number of six or seven hundred of those early and formidable enemies, both to his personal aggrandizement and to the tranquillity of Egypt.
The citadel of Cairo, within which, is the Pacha’s palace, and the dilapidated, but once gorgeous serai of Selahiddin (Saladin), rests on a projected shoulder of Mount Muqattam. From its frowning ramparts are seen, to the west, and beyond the Nile, the towering pyramids of Gizah, and the lesser ones of Sakhara and Dashur; the allegoric sphinx lies couchant before you, as in centuries gone by, and the renowned Memphis is faintly distinguished by the few remains of her ancient glory, now concealed by clustering groves of the graceful palm. Immediately below the ramparts, reposes Cairo, the mother of the world, as she is called in the figurative language of Arabia, with her populous avenues, her tongues of Babel, sumptuous palaces, and more splendid mosques, and minarets. The silver stream of the “blessed” Nile, flows by the walls of Cairo, bringing fertility to the earth, and joy to its people.
From this citadel the military procession, lead by Tosun Pasha, who had been appointed to command the expedition against the Wahabis, moved, and in descending to the city, passed through a narrow passage or defile. On either side, did high walls surmount the solid rock. When the Mameluk Beys had entered this defile, the gates at both ends were suddenly closed, and soldiers (about 3,500 warriors) previously stationed for that object, commenced firing upon these unsuspecting victims of treacherous design. Only one Mameluk named Hasan survived as he slaughtered his way though the enemy rows and jumped with the horse into 10-12 meters deep precipice and escaped. (Muhammad Ali was astonished by his courage, forgave him and offered service, but Hassan did not return and went with his compatriots to Sudan). The name of this Mameluk became a legend and Arabian writer Jurji Zaidan wrote a story “Exiled Mameluk” dedicated to him.
Throughout the following week, several thousands of Mameluks we killed in Egypt. In the citadel of Cairo alone more than 1000 Mameluks were killed, as well as in the city streets about 3500 Mameluks and their relatives were massacred. Many Mameluk leaders were slaughtered during this horror - son of great Ibrahim Beg - Marzuk Beg, Shahin Beg Al-Alfi, Iahia Beg, Numan Beg, Mustafa Beg, relatives of Murad Beg and many others.
One little group of escaped Mameluks, about 1000 men, went to Sudan and settled in a little village Dongola. Among them, there were Ibrahim Beg, Abd Ar-Rahman Beg, Usman Beg, Usman Beg Usup and others. The population of Dongola did not know who these people were, dressed as merchants and speaking a strange language (Georgian) and watched them with a great interest. During 9 years Mameluks lived in Dongola in poverty and many of them died in 2-3 years (among them Ibrahim Beg, who died in 1816). When in 1820 Muhammad Ali forgave them and allowed them to return to Egypt, only 80 Mameluks of those 1000 crossed the border of Egypt.
This was the end of the history of Mameluks, and as English historian James Oldridge wrote, this is how 600 years of ruling over Georgian slaves ended.
Mameluks of the Guard of Napoleon
In his history of the 13th chasseurs Colonel Descaves recounts the use the young General Bonaparte made of native troops in Egypt.
In his so-called “Instructions”, which Bonaparte gave to Kleber after departure, Napoleon write that he had already bought about 2000 Mameluks from Syrian merchants. During September 1799 General Kleber created a mounted company of Mameluk auxiliaries and Syrian Janissaries from Turks who took part in the Siege of Acre.
In 1800, 7 July General Menou reorganized and increased this company by Mameluks and formed into three companies of 100 men apiece. On October 26, it was renamed into the regiment of “Mameluks de la Republique”.
In 1801, according to the decree of 13th of October, General Rapp went to Marseilles to organize a squadron of 250 men under his command. On 7 January, 1802 the previous decree was annulled and a squadron of 150 ordered instead. The list of effectives dated 21 April reveales 13 officers and 155 men.
The decree of 25 December 1803 ordered the Mameluks to form a single company attached to the chasseurs á cheval of the Guard. Organization to compromise:
The Mameluks performed well at the battle of Austerlitz and were granted a standard, the roster increased to accommodate a standard bearer, 4 French NCO’s, 4 “horse main” bearers, and a trumpet.
Decree of 15 April, 1806 re-establishes totals as 13 officers and 147 men, including a porte-étendard, 4 porte-queues, a brigadier-trompette and four French brigadiers.
On January 29, 1813 the squadron was increased to 250 men. On 6 March, the unit was renamed 10th squadron of the chasseurs á cheval of the Guard. The decree of 17 March established second company belonging to the Young Guard. In 1814 the Young Guard company was detached to the Armée du Nord.
With the First Restoration, the company of Mameluks of the Old Guard was incorporated in the Corps Royal des Chasseurs de France (excepting seven men who followed Napoleon to Elba). The company of Mameluks of the Young Guard ware incorporated in the 7th chasseurs á Cheval.
At this date, only some 20 men could be counted true Mameluks. These retired to the port of Marseilles where they were massacred by royalist mob.
Despite the Imperial decree of 21 March 1815 in which it is stated that no foreigners could be admitted into the Guard, Napoleon’s decree of 24 April stated that the chasseurs of the Guard were to comprise a squadron of two companies of Mameluks for the Belgian campaign. This is confirmed by the known fact that some 94 men who did not serve under the First Restoration re-enlisted for the Hundred Days campaign. No casualties have been recorded, however. Certain Mameluks who attained officer class continued to serve France after the final abdication and the four remaining in 1830 are known to have accompanied Marshal Clauzel as interpreters for his Algerian campaign.
Of the 583 men who passed through the muster-books over the fifteen-year period, some 210 were colored as against 374 Frenchmen. From 1809 through 1812, three-quarters of the effectives were colored, but after the Russian campaign this number dropped to less than third.
The Mameluks were originally clad in an oriental costume of Syrian and Turkish Mameluk pattern and they retained this method of dress after passing into French Service. The costume comprised: a cahouk head-dress, in principal of green further to the 7 January 1802 decree, surrounded by a turban; a sleeved chemise ornamented with lace and piping; an Arab sash; charoual-style trousers and boots of either yellow , red or fawn leather.
The weaponry was prescribed by the Consular decree of II Germinal An X (1 April 1802) and included: a carbine; a blunderbuss; a pair of pistols (one of which was to be carried in the sash); a Mameluk sabre (a Turkish scimitar with a curved blade 77,2 cm long, wooden grip and oriental-style brass quillon; a black leather scabbard with brass fittings); a dagger (with 35,5 cm blade and wooden hilt, ivory for officers; the sheath was brass); a mace; a lance (for a lancer company which was in fact never formed)
In reality, the blunderbuss was carried and only later replaced with a musketoon. The two pistols were generally both carried in the sash and the saddle-holsters concealed a second pair. Finally, a short hand-axe often replaced the mace.
From 1805 through 1813, the cahouk headdress was either red or crimson with white turban. Its ornaments are open to certain speculation. Although the Wurtz Collection indicates only a centrally placed cockade, other authorities show a brass crescent moon surmounted by a brass star; this star is represented as having either five or six points. On the other hand, Vanson selects for cockade and star and crescent device. The headgear bore a black aigrette, sometimes gathered into a bulb at the base and in other cases sprouting from amidst a second, shorter and fatter black aigrette.
The jerkin became worn closed with the sash tied on top of it The variously colored chemise developed a tall European-style closed collar and in the case of NCOs, carried French-pattern rank distinctions in the form of either chevrons or stripes, dependent on the style of cuff. The cartridge-pouch and cross belt were constructed of either red or green Moroccan leather. The Turkish-style sabre cord was usually red and the Mameluks acquired a red swordknot. In the course of the campaigns, however, French-pattern cartridge-pouches, cross-belts were frequently adopted. The main change is the addition of a “regulation” chasseur style saddle cloth and roll, imperial green in color, piped red, with a red and white fringe. The saddlery and harness remain Arabic in style. The undress uniform was as for the chasseurs of the Guard but of a dark blue clothe.
Author does all translations
Napoleon Bonaparte, Memoirs, Campaign in Egypt, Moscow, 1956 (in Russian)
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