The Enemy Within!
Carlo Andrea Pozzo Di Borgo
by Ralph Baker, UK
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A tremendous volume of books and articles have been written about the military opponents of Napoleon, but considerably less about the statesmen who gave the orders to the generals who fought against the Corsican upstart. There are exceptions such as Pitt, but really the story of the politician, ambassador and diplomat in the period has not been fully valued. It must be remembered that the opponents of Napoleon usually fought in a coalition, each with their own aims and objectives, sometimes very much at odds with each other. The formation of these alliances took many hours of negotiation and diplomacy, frequently in secret between monarchs, heads of state and their representatives. This article describes the career of one of these men, an implacable opponent of Napoleon, who had known him from his youth, as he himself was a Corsican. A man whom Napoleon would place a price on his head and in his last desperate days of power turn to in a vain attempt to maintain his hold on France.
Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo was born on Corsica in the town of Alata in 1764. He was the son of a minor aristocratic family, but one that had a reputation for producing soldiers and diplomats for the service of Genoa or Venice. He attended the University of Pisa and showed an interest in law. At the age of 20 he returned to his island home and began to practice as an advocate. He also became head of the family on the death of his father, a position of importance within Corsican society. Pozzo was now in a situation to perhaps influence the course of the future for the island of his birth. Pozzo believed in the development and expansion of Corsica as a nation and in the ability of the island to organise its own affairs. In this regard he had been very influenced by its recent past.
For a long period Corsica had been under the control of the Genoese, but by the middle of the eighteenth century their hold was becoming increasingly tenuous. This was mainly due to the activities of one man, Pasquale Paoli. He had served in the army of Naples and in 1755 returned to his birthplace to free the Corsicans from the Italian yoke. By 1768 he had through conquest and diplomacy forced the Genoese into holding onto only the major settlements on the island. Being merchants at heart the Genoese recognised a loss making enterprise and sold their rights on the island to the French for the sum of two million francs. The French king wanted a quick return on his investment and promptly despatched a force of 30,000 to subdue the island. Paoli's meagre forces were quickly defeated and he escaped from the island on board an English ship in 1769, that same year the Buonaparte family was blessed with the birth of a son; Napoleon. Over the next 20 years the French exercised a harsh rule over the island. However surprisingly this did not lead to great resentment, instead the Corsicans began to see themselves as part of a strong nation. These feelings were no doubt helped by the fact that the rights and privileges of the Corsican nobility were confirmed by Louis XV. However the revolution in 1789 was to alter this state of affairs and affect the lives of Pozzo and Napoleon irrevocably.
Friends
Both of these young men were acquainted with each other and could perhaps be described as friends, being of the same social class and both interested in their own futures and that of Corsica. Napoleon was the more radical of the two and more closely attached to the ideals of the revolution. In November 1789 Napoleon had led a fledgling National Guard in tearing down the Bourbon flag in Bastia and helped in forming a commune in the town. These events were reported to the National Assembly in Paris. Napoleon continued in his efforts to spread revolution on the island by attacking Swiss mercenaries loyal to the old Bourbon government in Ajaccio, the island's capital. However by the end of the year little had fundamentally changed in the administration of the island. Both Pozzo and Napoleon were determined that this situation should not continue. Pozzo wrote this about their discussions.
"Napoleon and I, we talked and talked about things as they were, and as they might be. Our heads grew quite hot. Napoleon seized all those great ideas with remarkable impatience, comparing the present state of affairs with what it ought to be; he seemed to be dissatisfied with the world and full of prejudices."
Napoleon formed a 'Patriotic Committee' in Ajaccio, in which Pozzo was a leading member. Their initial aim was to ensure the return of General Paoli, who despite his 64 years was still seen by many as the saviour of Corsica . However before his return he had to be vetted by the National Assembly in Paris as to whether he could bring peace to Corsica and whether his loyalties still lay with the old French government. The Assembly seemed to be well satisfied with the answers that he gave and he was given permission to return home. Pozzo decided to travel to Aix-en-Provence to meet the old man and escort him back, meanwhile Napoleon indulged in more direct action being implicated in the death of a royalist officer in Bastia and in helping to organise anti royalist riots in Ajaccio. Napoleon denied involvement in both these incidents, but many in Corsica saw his as the guiding hand.
Paoli's return on the 14th July was the first indication that the friendship between Pozzo and Napoleon was coming under strain. It was evident that by escorting Paoli through France Pozzo had gained the old man's ear. In September a newly created congress of delegates elected Paoli as president and commander of the National Guard. By using his influence he had Pozzo chosen as one of the two new deputies for the National Assembly in Paris. The second was General Gentili who had accompanied Paoli in exile.
This was a great opportunity for Pozzo to bring Corsica to the attention of the regime in France and more importantly to show to the Corsican people the leadership qualities that he believed he possessed. Upon arrival in Paris, Pozzo was a little shocked by the apparent chaos of the city, this was not helped by the fact that he struggled to understand the local dialect. Despite these initial misgivings Pozzo was happy to address the Assembly and to thank that body for accepting the island as an integral part of France and to express concern about the large number of royalist officials that still held sway on the island. His speech was hailed by the left wing of the assembly but was criticised by the right. However it attracted the attention of the great revolutionary Mirabeau and with his support Pozzo was accepted as a deputy. Mirabeau was for the next five months to be the patron of Pozzo and the young man learned much from him about the practicalities of politics and revolutionary philosophy.
Their friendship was to be terminated by the death of Mirabeau in strange circumstances after he had been accused of dealing with the king to prevent the spread of the revolution. After his death the Assembly was thrown into greater chaos than usual and Pozzo began to be more and more disillusioned by his experience in Paris. He longed for revolution for its own sake to cease and for law and order to be restored. Pozzo quickly decided to return home as he had heard that unrest was continuing even with Paoli as head of state. However Pozzo's return was to be short lived. He was again chosen to be a deputy for the National Assembly, but this time France was in an even worse state. Louis XVI had tried to flee the country and was now under house arrest in the Tuileries.
Pozzo saw that the Assembly was torn by division over the future of the king and wanted as little as possible to do with the internal struggles in France. Thus he sought to involve himself in foreign affairs and so began his career in international diplomacy. Pozzo was elected a member of the Assembly's Diplomatic Committee. His first task was to assess the danger of foreign intervention in France by the Austrian Emperor and his Prussian allies. He recommended declaring war on Austria in the following words
"The French nation, had the intention of safeguarding peace in Europe by renouncing, in its new constitution, any act of aggression or conquest. But ambitious Austria has put her battalions on a war footing; she threatens to dictate her conditions to us, and to decide under what kind of tyranny we shall have to live. To all intents and purposes she has already declared war on us!"
However the war that he recommended did not go well for the revolutionary soldiers of France purged of many of its royalist officers. Failure on the field of battle led the Paris mob to storm the Tuileries and seize the royal family and the collapse of the National Assembly. The new National Convention had no place for Pozzo and he returned once more to Corsica fearful for the future.
During this turbulent period Napoleon had continued to be involved in stirring up trouble in Corsica. National Guard forces under his command had taken part in street fighting in Ajaccio and Paoli relieved him of the post of Adjutant Colonel and issued a complaint against him in Paris with the Committee of Public Safety, this was a dangerous development for the young officer.. Napoleon decided to return to Paris to argue his case and to ask for Pozzo's help in this matter. On his arrival in Paris he came to the conclusion that Pozzo would not support him even though he did not actually meet him. For the next few months Napoleon waited to hear his fate, whilst Pozzo became more and more irritated with the upheavals in the French government.
Pozzo was determined to return to Corsica, as he despaired for the state of France. On this journey he was arrested for a short time on suspicion of being in contact with the king. However Pozzo was able to talk his way out of this spurious accusation. He reached Corsica in November 1792 and gave Paoli all the news from Paris. Paoli was concerned that the war was going badly for France and that it might be advisable for his government to distance themselves from the extremist elements within France. As a result Paoli ordered the closure of the Corsican Jacobin Club under the leadership of the Buonapartes. Pozzo was made procureur general syndic which effectively made him acting governor of the island in preparation for Corsica's possible move away from unity with France.
Expedition
In December the king was brought to trial and his execution announced. The Corsican people showed their disgust for this in the results of an election that soon followed. Napoleon meanwhile had his commission reinstated as captain and he was given instructions to command the artillery in an expedition that was to be launched against Sardinia from Corsica. Paoli was ordered to provide regular and National Guard forces to join the fleet sailing from Toulon when it re-supplied in Corsica. When the expedition attacked Sardinia, Napoleon attempted to land his guns on the shore outside of Cagliari, the main town of Sardinia, but failed when the raw French conscripts fired on each other mistaking each other for Sardinians. The force had to withdraw leaving behind some artillery, one of the few times Napoleon was to loose his guns. Worse was to follow, French marines and members of the Corsican National Guard quarrelled in Ajaccio and some were injured. Paoli withdrew his forces from the expedition in direct confrontation with the Convention in Paris. Paoli and Pozzo were charged with treachery, although not directly by Napoleon. However Lucien his brother, the leading light in the Toulon Jacobin club wrote to the convention urging that Paoli and Pozzo intended to sell Corsica to the British. Both were charged with treason. Lucien wrote to Napoleon
"Paoli et Pozzo sont decretes et la nostra fortuna e fatta" exposing the Corsican tendency to combine both French and Italian. This letter was intercepted by Paoli's police and Napoleon was summoned to explain its contents. Napoleon denied knowledge of his brothers actions and in his memoirs wrote the following.
"I reminded Paoli that nothing violent can last long and that as he had an immense influence over the people of Corsica and was master of the strategic points and troops, he ought to be able to maintain tranquillity while the fury of the moment was passing away in France. The island ought not to be torn away from it's natural connection with the motherland on account of a momentary disorder. Corsica, I reminded him, belonged geographically either to France or Italy, but it could never be English; and as Italy was not a single unified country, Corsica should remain French."
However things had gone too far and the old general warned the youthful captain that he could not guarantee his safety in Corsica.
Napoleon left in no doubt what this meant and by chance was to meet Pozzo, who was just arriving to talk with Paoli. The two friends were now on a collision course that would see one for many years the apparent loser being hounded around the courts of Europe by the other's spies, but eventually triumphant, whilst the other would reach the pinnacle of power and glory only to see it swept away. They said nothing to each other as they passed in the courtyard. Napoleon made his way to Bastia were he planned to take Corsica by force with the support of the Jacobin powers in the city.
In May 1793 he attacked Ajaccio, but his landing force was driven back. The citizens in revenge burnt Napoleon's house within the walls to the ground. Napoleon's mother and sisters escaped, but the treatment of his family only added to Napoleon's anger. He joined his family at Calvi and on the 11th of June sailed to Toulon, leaving Paoli and Pozzo apparent victors. At Corte Paoli and Pozzo were feted at a political gathering, called a consulta. Although it was agreed that for the moment, Corsica should remain part of France, the Bounaparte family were declared fugitives. Pozzo was praised individually and in his role of proceur general syndic was commended. However this support within Corsica did nothing to change the minds of the Convention in Paris, the warrants for the arrest of Paoli and Pozzo still stood. This reaction prompted a general move against officials loyal to Paris and many were chased out of the island. Finally a second consulta declared that Corsica would sever it's links with France.
Pozzo was acutely aware of the fact that Corsica could not stand alone against the might of the Republican army and navy. However at this time these forces were heavily engaged against Austria and their allies and so there was time to try and gain support for Corsica's independence.
Britain
The natural choice had to be Britain, who at the moment was not heavily engaged against France and whose maritime power must surely be able to protect the island. Pozzo offered King George III the sovereignty of the island, provided that the islanders were given their traditional privileges. In January 1794 Sir Gilbert Elliot landed as the representative of the British crown and a few weeks later troops were landed and Nelson commanding H.M.S. Agamemnon was ordered to the island. The most pressing need was to reduce the republican fortress of Calvi. This Nelson successfully did with the loss of his right eye, meanwhile Sir Gilbert was planning the future administration of the island. Power was to rest with a state council of six members under the influence of a president, and dependent on a freely elected Parliament. Paoli clearly hoped to be appointed President, but Sir Gilbert recognised that the energies of a younger man were needed and Pozzo was the obvious choice. Paoli was deeply insulted by this perceived slur and began a letter campaign against his protege. However this did little to upset Pozzo as he was deeply involved in making British rule successful. Elections were held in 1795 and the new parliament was opened. However Paoli's enmity did weaken the administration in the eyes of the Corsican people and eventually Sir Gilbert's patience was exhausted. King George wrote to Paoli suggesting that he retire to England on a handsome pension and the old man accepted. Paoli was out of the way for the next stage of British expansion in the Mediterranean, the capture of Elba. This was achieved by Nelson in July 1796 with the capture of Porto Ferraio. This action was to counter the success of the French on the Italian mainland, led by Napoleon.
Since his flight from Corsica, Napoleon had risen quickly in the republican ranks, due to his actions at Toulon in 1793 and his crushing of an insurrection in Paris in 1795 using his famous "whiff of grapeshot". He had married Josephine de Beauharnais for both political influence and love and being raised to the rank of general had been sent to Italy to revive the flagging French army facing the Austrians. His campaign was brilliant in motivating his troops and destroying all initiative on the part of the Austrian high command. French success in Italy encouraged republican elements in Corsica to once more attempt to gain control.
There was a revolt in Bocognano and French agents were landing all the time. The French leadership was once more turning its eyes upon the strategic island of Corsica and its dashing new general had a very personal motive for seeing the island once more under French control. Guerrilla action grew against Pozzo's government and they could no longer rely on the loyalty of Corsican troops. The British had few forces to reinforce their hold on the island. General Gentili once a fellow deputy with Pozzo in the Paris Assembly, was building up an expedition to invade Corsica from Leghorn. Pozzo hoped to quieten things on the island by offering his resignation to Sir Gilbert, but things had gone too far and in September 1796 The Duke of Portland, on the orders of Pitt's government instructed Sir Gilbert to prepare to withdraw from Corsica.
In October Gentili's forces landed at Cape Corse and advanced on Bastia. The evacuation of the island was ordered and Nelson stood by with his fleet to carry this out. Napoleon wanted to gather as much support as possible from the people and was prepared to issue an amnesty, but not to all.
"All those who have been misguided will be pardoned, with the exception of the members of the former government, who are held responsible for their infamous treachery, especially Carlo-Andrea Pozzo di Borgo. They are liable to be arrested and brought before a military tribunal as swiftly as possible."
Pozzo knew he had no choice but to flee. On the 18th October he reached Bastia and boarded H.M.S. Captain, Nelson's flagship, which set sail for Elba. Pozzo later wrote.
"I had not a single point for a foothold and as my cause was the fight against France's revolution and her bid for world domination, I adopted the whole world as my fatherland."
Pozzo could have sought to stay on Elba, but was instead determined to make as important contribution as he could in the war against France. He decided to go to England to be at the centre of resistance. He travelled via Naples and Rome and on reaching London sought out Sir Gilbert Elliot as a means of introduction into London society. Pozzo received a small pension from the treasury and began his career in international diplomacy. His command of languages and charm gained him almost instant attention. French émigrés found that he listened to their ideas with attention and his good looks seemed to have charmed many of the ladies. But for all that Pozzo's home in London was a room in a cheap hotel.
French success continued, guided by Napoleon's continued conquests in Italy. The republic of Genoa, Sardinia, Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Naples fell under French influence. French troops marched to within 30 miles of Vienna, when the Austrians sought an armistice. England stood alone against France. Napoleon planned to invade, but was then diverted by thoughts of an Arabian adventure and suffered one of his rare failures in strategic thinking with the disastrous expedition to Egypt. In 1798 amidst the latter events Sir Elliot was created Lord Minto and appointed ambassador to Vienna. He offered to take Pozzo with him as a personal adviser. What better place for an aspiring diplomat to hone his skills.
Within a short space of time, Pozzo had become well known in the parlours of the Austrian capital. He was consulted by officials much more experienced than himself, principally because of his personal knowledge of Napoleon. However he also came to the notice of the Austrian police. It is not fully known, what faux pas he committed, but his permit of residence was withdrawn. Even though Lord Minto pressed for him to be allowed to stay the authorities were adamant. He returned to England, but there was no official post for him. He sought the help of the Count of d'Artois, who led the French émigrés in London, but none was forthcoming from that quarter. Pozzo was reduced to writing his thoughts on the current situation in Europe and attempting to circulate them amongst his acquaintances. All the time he continued to see Napoleon's star continue to rise.
On November 9 1799 Napoleon seized power in the coup d'etat of the 18 Brumaire, assuming the title of first consul. He quickly asserted his power by squashing resistance to the new regime and defeating Austria once more, imposing the peace of Luneville in 1801. Britain also agreed to a peace treaty at Amiens in 1802, although both sides did not really believe that the peace could last. Napoleon also signed a concordat with the Vatican. Throughout this period Pozzo constantly sought to return to Vienna and succeeded in 1803, when the Austrian police were no longer interested in the doings of an impoverished and seemingly unimportant political commentator. Pozzo found that in order to be heard at all, he had to adopt a more and more reactionary position in relation to France and the future of Europe. He wrote.
"There are only two forms of government which are worth considering, the Roman Empire and the French monarchy. There may be new forms . . . one day . . . The British monarchy is based on a special aristocratic system, we may admire it, but it would be folly to emulate it."
Pozzo believed that Napoleon posed a threat to this order and continually argued that he should not be underestimated by the governments of Europe. In many ways he was an admirer of the force of his personality and success in the military field. In June 1804, Pozzo was finally successful in securing an official post for himself. He had written to Prince Adam Czartoryski, who was the assistant to the Russian minister of foreign affairs, stating his skills and talents that he was prepared to put at the service of the Tsar. However it was probably not this letter that secured him a position, but the jolt all European states received, when Napoleon declared himself Emperor of the French. Any source of information about the new Emperor could prove useful and Pozzo was invited to call on the Russian ambassador in Vienna, Count Razumovsky.
He was given the rank of Extraordinary Commissary and ordered to St. Petersburg to receive his instructions. Pozzo was elated, his persistence had finally triumphed. In October Pozzo reached the capital and had an audience with the Tsar, who impressed him with his desire for a secure and peaceful Europe in which there would be religious tolerance and fair public justice. However the first issue was to ensure the taming of the French beast. Pozzo was ordered to Naples to represent the Russian state. No doubt his personal experience was the main reason for this mission. He arrived in Vienna and began the process of building up resistance to Napoleon. When he sought to continue his journey through Italy he was denied a passport by the Austrian authorities until he had been interviewed by the Austrian foreign minister Cobenzl. This was probably a hangover from his previous brush with the Austrian police. On his arrival in Naples Pozzo was informed that he had been made a state councillor by the Tsar.
However this news was tempered by the fact that an Austrian army had been destroyed at Ulm. Pozzo hoped that this reverse in fortune would be short lived, but that was not to be and the allied armies were smashed in a matter of a few weeks time at Austerlitz. France once more imposed it's will on the major powers of Europe and in the peace treaties that followed the Kingdom of Naples found that it was to have a new monarch - Joseph Bonaparte. This was very unwelcome news for Pozzo as he might well soon expect to be persona non grata or suffer an even worse fate. He quickly absented himself from the kingdom. On his return to St. Petersburg he urged the Tsar to ally himself as closely as possible to England, in order to maintain some sort of coalition against Napoleon. Pozzo wrote
"Peace with honour could only be achieved by an active military alliance of Russia and England, the alternative is to prepare for war to the bitter end."
The Tsar awarded Pozzo the rank of honorary colonel in the Tsar's lifeguards and sent him once more to Vienna, with secret letters to Francis II to question him about the nature of the peace treaty that he had just signed with Napoleon. This treaty had consigned the Holy Roman Empire to the history books. His arrival in October was marred by news of the Prussian defeats at Jena and Auerstädt. There was little even a diplomat of Pozzo's talent could do in the circumstances to convince Austria to pick up the sword of resistance, once more.
Instead Pozzo suggested to his adopted sovereign Tsar Alexander a far sighted and intriguing plan. He believed that he could negotiate an alliance between Russia and it's old enemy, Turkey, against Napoleon. Pozzo must have felt very secure in the Tsar's employ to put forward this audacious plan and very confident in his own skills to convince the Sublime Porte of it's value. Pozzo received permission to try this avenue of approach, but was warned that until a treaty was signed Russia would not regard Turkey as a friend. This was to create an interesting situation, when Pozzo having travelled to Corfu and boarded the flagship of Vice Admiral Semiavin, found himself in a naval battle off Mount Athos in which the Russian fleet engaged 20 Turkish vessels. Pozzo tried hard to negotiate a cease-fire in this conflict and seemed to be making progress, when on August 4 1807 the Russian fleet was approached by an English frigate. This vessel carried the news that Russia had signed the treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon a fortnight before. Pozzo was devastated.
This treaty created the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and saw Saxony greatly expanded. Napoleon also expanded the influence of his family by making Jerome king of Westphalia. Napoleon urged the Tsar to join the continental system that was starting to paralyse England's trade. These were all bitter pills for Pozzo to swallow, but Napoleon had not forgotten his old friend. Ever since Pozzo's flight from Corsica Napoleon had tried to keep track of his movements and he was well aware of his employment by the Russian state. Apparently Pozzo had been mentioned at the talks at Tilsit and Napoleon had asked for his expulsion from Russian service. In September the new Russian foreign minister de Budberg dismissed him.
Pozzo wrote to the Tsar on the receipt of this instruction,
"Napoleon has not forgotten his hatred of me. I shall be a nuisance to Your Majesty. Still I doubt whether the new harmony between Your Majesty and Napoleon will be of a long duration."
Where to Turn?
Where was Pozzo to turn now, in his mind there was only one choice, Vienna. He knew the city well and hopefully his contacts would warn him of any French agents about to arrest him. However Pozzo was to underestimate Napoleon's network and within only a matter of weeks, the Austrian state made it clear that Pozzo must leave. Pozzo continued his nomadic existence for the almost a year only just staying ahead of Napoleon's men. He ranged back and forth between Russia and Austria until in 1809, Austria once more began to raise forces to test the mettle of Napoleon. Despite the brief success of Aspern Essling the Austrians were again defeated and harsh conditions imposed upon them. Pozzo was in Vienna when the French were victorious at Wagram and fled to Moravia and then on to Troppau in Silesia, where he met another political exile, Carl Friedrich von Stein. Stein was an aristocrat who had a firm vision of the future of Europe and particularly Germany.
He had served in Prussia as the Minister of Trade and Finance, but more importantly had worked for the liberation of serfs and the abolition of class privileges. This had worried the King and he had dismissed Stein, however he returned to the government in late 1807 and began to formulate plans for a citizen's army to challenge the yoke of French Imperialism. As such he was one of the first proponents of what was to become the War of Liberation in 1813. However the time was not yet ripe and Napoleon, suspecting the actions of Stein forced his expulsion on the King of Prussia. Thus Stein found himself in Troppau, staying one step ahead of French forces. Both men had a price on their heads payable in French gold. For a short time they conversed about the situation in Europe and expressed their hopes for the future. Here there was a divergence of opinion. Pozzo still believed in the enlightened monarchy as the best form of government, whilst Stein laid greater stress on the role of the bourgeoisie in an electoral system. But they both looked for the defeat of Napoleon and his Imperial edifice. They parted, with Stein travelling to Prague and Pozzo returning to Vienna with the departure of French troops.
Pozzo used his time in Vienna, to collect as much information as possible about the current state of affairs in Austria. However after a short interlude, he was summoned to an interview with the new chancellor, Metternich.
Pozzo was cordially told that Napoleon had once more tracked him down and ordered the Austrians to hand him over. Metternich assured Pozzo that this would not happen, but he must leave at once. He sought help from the Russian ambassador, but non was forthcoming and Pozzo left to travel to England. He reached London after a long and tiring journey. England at this period was in a difficult position, coping with the continental system and poor relations with the United States.
Upon his arrival , he received a visit from Lord Wellesley, the Foreign Secretary. He was questioned on his thoughts about the Tsar's attitude to Napoleon. Britain had been pleased by the lack of willingness on the part of Russia to enforce the continental system. Also it was well known that the Tsar feared the expansion of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Pozzo explained the situation as he saw it and was asked to write to the Tsar on the behalf of the British government. Pozzo set to this task with a will. He discussed his reports with the Prince Regent and other members of the government. Pozzo's knowledge of the Russian position was invaluable and he quickly realised that the Tsar was looking for any sign of weakness on Napoleon's part in order to make a break from the treaty of Tilsit. However Britain was not only interested in canvassing the Russians, in any grand scheme against the French, but wished to examine the strength of French rule in the rest of Europe. For that reason the British government asked Pozzo to visit Italy. This was a very dangerous assignment for him. He had many enemies there and the Emperor's spy network was very efficient, however he agreed to go.
In Disguise
Pozzo landed in Italy in the spring of 1812 and was forced to move around in disguise. He believed that he had been identified soon on arrival and an order for his arrest was issued to the police throughout Italy, together with a description. Pozzo moved into Piedmont and for a short time took refuge in Alba in the home of a fellow Corsican refugee, who happened to be an official in the local constabulary!! During his stay in Italy he managed to contact a number of men willing to organise resistance against the French if the opportunity arose. It seemed in June 1812 that this might have happened as French armies crossed the Niemen into Russia. Pozzo knew he had to return to London on the receipt of this information.
He managed to get there, just as the news from the Russian front was not good. Russian forces were in widespread retreat and the Tsar had been forced to recall the elderly Kutusov to the colours. Under the leadership of this stalwart general, the Russian forces fought the French to a standstill at Borodino in September and even though Moscow was captured it was a pyhrric victory for Napoleon. The spectre of winter now began to loom.
Meanwhile Pozzo had been busy liasing between Britain and Russia, helping to maintain the resolve of the Tsar and organise finance for the campaign. In December the Tsar requested Pozzo to return to Russia to once more take up an official post in the diplomatic service. He embarked on a British ship for Stockholm and then joined the Tsar at Kalisch in eastern Poland in the early spring. Napoleon's forces had undergone the terrible retreat from Moscow and were now in tatters in Saxony.
Pozzo never one to let circumstances run ahead of him, now believed that the time was right to attempt to wean Bernadotte, the Crown Prince of Sweden away from the French camp. Pozzo had met Bernadotte, when he was French ambassador in Vienna, many years before and was aware of his vanity, greed and dislike for Napoleon. Pozzo was prepared to play on all these factors. It is not necessary to explain how the marshal was now the heir to the Swedish throne as most readers are aware of this man's career.
Pozzo met Bernadotte in Stockholm and was not surprised to find a man who believed that the affairs of Europe revolved around him. Bernadotte's main demand for allying himself to Russia, was Norway. Norway had for centuries been ruled by Denmark and Bernadotte knew he was asking for almost the impossible. Pozzo had no authority to negotiate on this basis and returned to the Tsar's headquarters for more detailed instructions. He was instructed to conclude the alliance if at all possible and he was given the opportunity to suggest that if Napoleon was removed then the French would require a strong leader and that Bernadotte could be a candidate. Bernadotte's ambitions were inflated by this suggestion and he agreed in a second meeting with Pozzo to join the allied cause.
However Napoleon was still not defeated. After the debacle in Russia, he had by ravaging the manpower resources of France and the remaining parts of the Empire, rebuilt an army in Saxony and for a long period, through skilful manoeuvring kept the allied armies at bay. However he was eventually cornered at Leipzig in October and conclusively beaten. Pozzo's contribution was that Swedish troops took a significant part in the "Battle of Nations", thanks to his charming of Bernadotte. Napoleon now began to realise that his dreams of dominating Europe were failing. In his writings on St Helena, Napoleon wrote this about Pozzo's role
"If it was Pozzo di Borgo who advised the Emperor Alexander to march right into Paris, then by this one deed he decided the destiny of France, the course of European civilisation, the fate of the human race and the whole of the world."
No doubt Pozzo did have influence in the allied camp, but perhaps not this much !! Pozzo was now with the Tsar in Frankfurt and found that Stein was now an advisor to Alexander as well. The Tsar was the figurehead of the allied cause and it was from his proclamations that the rest of Europe discovered the aims of the allies. Pozzo did urge on the Tsar the importance of taking Paris as soon as possible, before Napoleon turned it into a fortress, which would cost the allied armies much in terms of men and support to take. Napoleon could delay the main allied armies, but could do little to stop the advance from Spain of Wellington's hardened peninsula forces. Nor could he slow the advance of the Swedish forces led by the turncoat Bernadotte, who had at his shoulder Pozzo to guide him and more importantly to keep an eye on him for the Tsar and the other allied leaders. Pozzo was scathing of his companion
"This Jacobean who masquerades as a prince, with his 12,000 Swedish soldiers paid by other people, dares to treat us Russians as fools and slaves . . ."
By now Pozzo regarded himself as more Russian than Corsican. The allies knowing that victory was all but secure had now begun a peace conference at Chatillon in February 1814. It was now that the differences in the aims of the allies could no longer be papered over. One of the most important issues was who was to succeed Napoleon. England backed the Duke de Orleans, who in exile had gained the confidence of the British people. Metternich thought the allies could be served best by manipulating Napoleon's young son in a regency. The Tsar was toying with backing Bernadotte. Pozzo's choice was Louis XVIII, who he saw as the symbol of legitimate power. The arguments began.
On 31 March, Paris was surrendered to the allied contingents encamped in its suburbs, but not on Napoleon's orders, who continued the fight for almost another week (he abdicated on the 6th April at Fontainbleau). When the allied troops entered Paris they were led by Alexander, who was followed almost immediately by Pozzo and others. Pozzo was in the uniform of a Russian general. His moment of triumph had arrived and he must have been reminded of all the dangers he had faced in the years prior to this. Since Pozzo was fluent in French he had actually written the allied proclamation to the citizen's of Paris, although it had been signed by Schwarzenberg the Commander in Chief.
General Commissary
Immediately after the allied victory parade a provisional government was formed under Talleyrand and Pozzo was appointed the General Commissary of the Russian government. Pozzo was determined to secure the return of Louis XVIII and discussed this possibility with as many people as possible, including Talleyrand. Eventually the allies came to the conclusion that Louis was a compromise candidate, that offended as few of them as possible and Pozzo was despatched to London to bring the exile back. Pozzo met Louis in Twickenham and brought him up to date with the current situation in France.
He urged the elderly pretender to accept many of the changes that the revolution had ushered in, however it is debatable whether even his whiles had much impact on this naive politician. Louis entered Paris on May 3rd 1814 and was met with a warm reception, Pozzo was in the carriage immediately behind the king. He must have felt at this point that his political achievements were almost complete. However there still remained the question of the Congress of Vienna.
Napoleon had after his abdication been allowed to retain many of his titles and even though he was confined to the island of Elba, was not perhaps punished as some would have desired. France's problems did not stop with the banishment of the Emperor, many found that living conditions did not improve and were fearful of the newly returned influence of the clergy. The French were resentful of the continued allied occupation and did not believe that Louis was doing enough to bring their departure forward. The Congress of Vienna was to further increase their doubts and frustrations. Mainly under the guiding hand of Metternich the Congress saw the return in many areas of the rule of absolute monarchy. Nationalist feelings that had been nurtured in the preceding 20 years were almost entirely ignored.
Pozzo attended the Congress as the representative of the Russian state, under the instructions of the foreign minister Nesselrode, however it was clear to many there that Pozzo still had the good of France close to his heart. He firstly attempted to marry the heir to the French throne the Duc de Berry to Tsar Alexander's sister Grand Duchess Anne, but this venture foundered on the rocks of religious doctrine ( Catholic and Orthodox ). After this failure he was concerned to see as little of France as possible given to the allied nations and came close to incurring the wrath of Alexander. This was avoided by the return of the 'ogre'. Napoleon landed at the Cap d'Antibes on March 1st 1815.
Within a couple of days Louis had fled to Flanders when it became clear that the garrisons in the south of France were joining him en masse. Ney's famous declaration to bring Napoleon back in an iron cage, turned into hot air, when he actually faced his idol. Pozzo hurried to join Louis at Ghent, in order to bolster the king's resolve and to represent Russia in a diplomatic capacity, since no Russian troops were as yet close enough to France to have a significant impact. This role fell on the soldiers of Blucher and Wellington, who were being quickly amassed close to the border. At least Pozzo was pleased to see that any differences that had existed at the Congress between the allied powers were temporarily in abeyance. Alexander had instructed Pozzo to persuade the Duke of Wellington and Louis that it was necessary for Louis to agree to a plebiscite on the constitution in France in order to undermine support for Napoleon. Wellington however did not agree with this proposal.
"A French king who submits his crown to the decision of a national convention, would give a dangerous example to the world by accepting the will of the people as a condition of legality and as the source of all public authority. That would mean that all the other European governments are illegal."
Clearly Wellington did not trust the "scum of the earth" to have any right to representation. The idea of a plebiscite was dropped. Pozzo was now given a strange offer. Napoleon sent an emissary to him, with instructions to promise him the crown of Corsica if he would break with the allies. Napoleon clearly saw Pozzo as keystone in the resistance against him, but he was unsuccessful. His offer was rejected out of hand. Pozzo was present at the great ball at Brussels on 15th June and joined Wellington's forces, when the Duke left for the field of battle. The crisis was fast approaching. French forces had pushed the allies back at Ligny and Quatre Bras and Wellington had decided to hold along the ridge of Mont St Jean.
Waterloo
At Waterloo, Pozzo stood in the centre of the allied line close to Hougomont. During the battle he was hit in the arm, but the wound was treated by a surgeon on the spot. He was there to see the Imperial Guard recoil in the last throw of the dice late in the early evening and knew that the power of the foe was finally broken.
Napoleon's slender control of France collapsed almost instantaneously and the allies were forced to react quickly. It was agreed that although Louis had shown himself to be a weak and feckless ruler, he should be returned to power. Whilst Napoleon fled to Rochefort in an attempt to escape to America, Louis again entered Paris, escorted by Pozzo on July 8th. The celebrations were a little more muted on this occasion. Napoleon failed in his attempt to flee across the Atlantic and on the 15th July was forced to board H.M.S. Bellerophon and throw himself on the mercy of the English crown. He found that this mercy was not to be very generous, when he found himself on the wind swept island of St. Helena.
Pozzo was pleased that his opponent of many years, now finally rested in a place in which he could do little harm. Pozzo's work though was not complete. He now wanted to ensure that France was not emasculated by the victorious powers particularly Austria and Prussia. Even though he was still the Russian ambassador his main impetus was towards the protection of France's territorial integrity. Pozzo largely succeeded in his mission and France retained most of the borders she had held in 1789. He also worked to see that occupation troops were withdrawn as quickly as possible from France, especially the Prussians, who had adopted a very aggressive stance. This was achieved in 1818, and Pozzo looked forward to a period of peace in France. But this was not to be Louis never really learnt how to govern his people and resentment continued. In 1821 Napoleon died and Pozzo must have thought about his own mortality. In 1824 Louis died and was succeeded by Charles X, whom Pozzo did not like and did not trust.
Pozzo believed that he had too strong a wish to return to many of the ideas from the ancien regime. Pozzo's influence on politics in France began to wane. This continued with the death of Alexander in 1825. Alexander had sought to keep Russia in the forefront in Europe, his brother Nicholas, who became Tsar was much more concerned with the East and Turkey and Persia in particular. After Russia withdrew from the politics of Western Europe, the consensus within the allies to maintain the peace in concert began to breakdown and policies became more reactionary. Austria struggled to assert it's hegemony over a mass of peoples, Prussian middle classes were denied any form of representation in their country, much against the wishes of Stein and others, in England Wellington was vehement in his opposition to increased suffrage, Pozzo must have felt that nothing worse could occur, but he was wrong. In 1830 Charles was ousted in a coup and was replaced by Louis Phillipe.
The restoration of the Bourbons had failed. Pozzo was devastated. He continued to hold the post of Russian ambassador to France until 1835, when he was ordered to be ambassador to Britain. He saw this as a criticism of him and an attempt to remove him from influence on France. In England his health deteriorated rapidly and in 1839 he requested that he be allowed to retire. The Russian state allowed him to do so.
Back to Paris
He returned to Paris in time to see Napoleon's remains returned to France. He lived with his nephew and his family and spent the last two years of his life dedicated to improving the economic life of Corsica. He gave endowments to farmers and paid for instructors in agriculture. He died on February 1842. During his life he had met many of the great leaders of his time and had a profound influence on the politics of the era and yet his name is not one to immediately associate with the Napoleonic period. The names of marshals, admirals and generals quickly spring to mind, perhaps the glory won on the field of battle does have a stronger lustre, than that won by the men who seek to make a peace work or to construct a secure form of government. It is not easy to see whose fault that is if any. Perhaps the last thing to consider is this, what if Pozzo had been the man who ran France, whilst Napoleon was campaigning against his enemies, might not the Napoleonic period have been even longer.
Most of the sources about Pozzo are in French and my ability to read in this language is limited and very time consuming. Secondly many of the sources were written in the late 19th century and are thus quite difficult to access. French libraries are usually helpful though. I did manage to read sections of the most important text in French which is "Pozzo di Borgo, Diplomate de l'Europe francaise"by P. Ordioni published in 1935.
In English the important texts are as follows
Carlo Andrea Pozzo di Borgo - E. Larsen Dobson books 1968
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